EVALUATION PAPER 3

Question 1

sexual selection

Answer 1

Clarke and Hatfield (male and female psych students on campus), Waynforth and Dunbar (lonely hearts adverts), partner preferences over the last century have undoubtedly been influenced by rapidly changing social norms of sexual behaviour (quicker than evolution)

Question 2

physical attractiveness theory

Answer 2

Palmer and Peterson (physical attractiveness = politically knowledgeable), Touhey (sexist people care more about physical attractiveness)

Question 3

matching hypothesis theory

Answer 3

Berscheid et al (people chose dance partners who matched them), Taylor et al (online dating websites: online daters sought meetings with potential partners who were more physically attractive than them)

Question 4

filter theory

Answer 4

Kerchoff and Davis (longitudinal study – similarity in attitudes and values important in the ST, LT = complementarity, filter theory assumes that the key factors in a relationship change over time (RWA of successful marriages), research has found that cohabiting partners become more similar in their emotional responses over time, but other research has found that romantic partners over time bring their attitudes into line with each other’s

Question 5

self disclosure theory

Answer 5

theory can be used to explain why relationships developed online may not succeed, Sprecher and Hendrick (correlations between several measures of satisfaction and self-disclosure), much self-disclosure research is correlational (less internal validity)

Question 6

self disclosures in virtualrelationships

Answer 6

extent and depth of self-disclosure is dependent on the type of online communication, Whitty and Joinson (online questions tend to be more direct and personal)

Question 7

absence of gating in virtual relationships

Answer 7

McKenna and Bargh (online communication by socially anxious people = more likely to succeed in relationships), BOTH: Walther (theories fail to take into account that almost all relationships are multi-modal)

Question 8

social exchange theory

Answer 8

Kurdek (questionnaires measuring relationship commitment and SET variables), Clark and Mills (theory fails to distinguish between work and personal relationships), concepts of SET are difficult to quantify (rewards and costs have been superficially defined)

Question 9

equity theory

Answer 9

Utne et al (couples who considered their relationship more equitable = more satisfied than under/over benefitting), McQuinn (equity did not increase in their longitudinal study of dating couples), Clark and Mills (theory fails to distinguish between work and personal relationships)

Question 10

rusbult’s investment model

Answer 10

Le and Agnew (satisfaction, Clalt and investment size all predicted relationship commitment), Rusbult and Martz (battered women’s shelter), strong correlations

Question 11

duck’s model of relationship breakdown

Answer 11

RWA (ways to reverse a relationship breakdown), most research involves retrospective reports after the relationship has broken down, most research is based on Western, individualist cultures and so the theory suffers from cultural relativism.

Question 12

levels of parasocial relationships

Answer 12

McCutheon et al (celebrity attitude scale and anxiety in real relationships)

Question 13

parasocial relationships: absorption-addiction model

Answer 13

Maltby et al (link between celebrity worship and body image in teenagers), better description than an explanation

Question 14

parasocial relationships: attachment theory

Answer 14

Schmid and Klimmt (insecurely attached formed a parasocial relationship with Harry Potter in all cultures), research relies on retrospective accounts/evidence

Question 15

free will vs determinism

Answer 15

D=doubtful that it would ever be 100% found in twin studies, D=position is incompatible with our notions of legal responsibility, FW=everyday experience gives the impression that we are constantly choosing our thoughts and actions, FW=activity in motor areas of the brain before having conscious awareness

Question 16

nature-nurture

Answer 16

life experiences can shape biology = interactionist approach is more appropriate, strong commitment to both = hard determinism so interactionist is better, constructivism (people create their own nurture by actively seeking environments that are appropriate for their nature

Question 17

holism and reductionism

Answer 17

R=possible to break behaviour down into its constituent parts and scientifically test them, R=explanations oversimplify complex phenomena, H=difficult to rigorously test scientifically and can become vague and speculative as they become too complex, H=more complete understanding of behaviour

Question 18

idiographic and nomothetic approaches

Answer 18

I=in-depth, provides a complete and global account of the individual, I=qualitative methods are open to bias, N=more scientific, so makes psychology more credible as a science, N=preoccupation with general laws is said to have led to ‘losing the whole person’ within psychology

Question 19

ethical implications and socially sensitive research

Answer 19

studies of underrepresented groups and issues may promote greater sensitivity and understanding (reducing prejudice and encouraging acceptance), USA in the 1920s and 1930s enacted compulsory sterilisation legislation for the ‘feeble-minded’, Sieber and Stanley (the way in which research questions are phrased and investigate may influence the way in which findings are interpreted.

Question 20

gender bias

Answer 20

gender-biased research may create misleading assumptions about female behaviour, lack of women at senior leadership level means that female concerns may not be reflected in the research questions asked, Dambrin and Lambert studied the lack of women in executive positions in accountancy firms (included a reflection on how their gender-related experiences influence their reading of events. This reflexivity is an important development in Psychology.

Question 21

cultural bias

Answer 21

assumption from studies may be that any differences between cultures are due to nature or genetically inherited factors and thus people from different ethnic groups may then be labelled with an incorrect stereotype, cultural bias may be less of an issue today (due to globalisation and the interconnectedness of cultures), conducting cross cultural research may challenge our Western ways of thinking and viewing the world and help to deal with cultural bias

Question 22

symptom overlap

Answer 22

Serper (co-morbid schiz and cocaine abuse), Ketter (misdiagnosis = delays receiving relevant treatment)

Question 23

co-morbidity

Answer 23

Buckley et al (50% depression, 47% substance abuse, 29% PTSD, 23% OCD)

Question 24

cultural bias (schizophrenia)

Answer 24

Copeland et al (2% UK diagnosis vs 69% USA diagnosis), Escobar (white psychiatrists tend to over-interpret symptoms of black people)

Question 25

gender bias (schizophrenia)

Answer 25

Loring and Powell (men = 56% diagnosis, females = 20% diagnosis, wasn’t evident amongst female psychiatrists)

Question 26

biological explanations of schizophrenia

Answer 26

G=Tienari (children of schizophrenics are still at heightened risk even if adopted), G=DZ and MZ twin environments are not the same, N=Leucht et al (antipsychotics were more effective than placebos), Noll=antipsychotics do not alleviate hallucinations and delusions in about 1/3 of people

Question 27

drug therapy treatment for schizophrenia

Answer 27

likelihood of side effects e.g., tardive dyskinesia and agranulocytosis, Leucht et al (antipsychotics were better than placebos), antipsychotics enhance the quality of life for patients as they allow them to live independently outside of institutional care.

Question 28

psychological explanations of schizophrenia

Answer 28

FD=parent-blaming, FD=Garety et al (relapse for those experiencing family therapy, which reduces expressed emotion, is 25% compared to 50% for those who received standard care alone), CE=Stirling et al (schizophrenics took twice as long on the Stroop test), CE=only explain what is happening now to produce symptoms rather than what initially caused the condition.

Question 29

CBTp

Answer 29

NICE review found consistent evidence that CBTp was more effective than standard care alone in reducing rehospitalisation rates up to 18 months following the end of treatment, CBTp only aims to make schizophrenia more manageable and improve quality of life, CBTp requires motivation that patients may not have

Question 30

family therapy as a treatment

Answer 30

only aims to make schizophrenia more manageable and improve quality of life, McFarlane (family therapy was one of the most consistently effective treatments available for schizophrenia, family therapy has significant economic benefits (reduction of hospitalisation costs)

Question 31

token economy

Answer 31

only aim to make schizophrenia more manageable and improve the patient’s quality of life, Dickerson et al (11/13 token economy studies reported beneficial effects directly attributable to the use of token economies), only really been shown to work in a hospital setting (24 hour care, better control for staff)

Question 32

interactionist approach for schizophrenia

Answer 32

Tienari et al (19000 Finnish children with the biological predisposition that were adopted, a child-rearing style characterised by high levels of criticism and conflict and low levels of empathy were implicated in the development of schizophrenia (only for those in the high-genetic risk group), simplicity of the original model has been criticised, it is possible that stressors earlier in life can also influence how people respond to later stressful events, and increase their susceptibility (ability to develop coping mechanisms)

Question 33

neural mechanisms in aggression

Answer 33

LS+S=Links between biological mechanisms are well established in animals but not humans, LS=Charles Whitman (tumour pressing against amygdala = aggressive), Gospic et al (mild provocation = heightened activity in the amygdala)

Question 34

hormonal mechanisms in aggression

Answer 34

Dabbs et al (high testosterone = violent crimes), Carre and Mehta (dual-hormone hypothesis, high testosterone = aggression ut only when cortisol levels are low, Ziomkiewica et al (negative correlation between progesterone levels and self-reported aggression)

Question 35

genetic factors in aggression

Answer 35

twin studies (convictions for violent crime are relatively few compared to the number of violent attacks), Mertins et al (low activity and high activity variants of the MAOA gene in money distributing game), Caspi et al (low levels of MAOA = antisocial behaviour (if they had been maltreated as children).

Question 36

ethological explanation of aggression

Answer 36

Brunner et al (low activity variant of MAOA = aggression (innate basis)), Nisbett (N-S divide in the US for homicide rates, with killings more common amongst white males in southern states, which was due to a culture of honour), Hoebel (Inuit Eskimos use song duels to settle grudges and disputes)

Question 37

evolutionary explanations of aggression

Answer 37

Daly and Wilson (tribal societies bestow increased status and honour to men who have committed murder), humans can be incredibly cruel e.g., Rwandan genocide in 1994, male-retention tactics may be seen as early indicators of potential violence against female partner)

Question 38

frustration aggression hypothesis

Answer 38

Geen (ppts who failed to solve a puzzle because they were insulted by a confederate gave the strongest electric shocks to the confederate subsequently), Bushman (ppts got more aggressive even when venting their anger), FAH has important RWA e.g., open-carry laws in the USA may cause more aggressive drives because of the presence of environmental stimuli

Question 39

social learning theory

Answer 39

Bandura’s Bobo dolls, SLT underestimates the influence of biological factors, !Kung San Tribe have no aggression, because social norms don’t encourage it

Question 40

deindividuation theory

Answer 40

Dodd (36% of responses involved some form of antisocial behaviour, only 9% were prosocial behaviours), Johnson and Downing (KKK, normal clothes, nurse), Watson (23 societies changed appearance prior to going to war. 12/15 who changed their appearance were highly aggressive, compared to 1/8 who didn’t change their appearance.

Question 41

institutional aggression

Answer 41

Camp and Gaes (561 inmates with similar criminal histories, half in low-security Californian prison, half in a high-security prison. Within 2 years there was no significant difference), Henley et al (256 aggressive inmates in Mississipi which allows conjugal visits. No link between these visits and reduced aggressive behaviour), DeLisi et al (inmates with negative backgrounds were more likely to engage in aggressive activity)

Question 42

media influences on aggression

Answer 42

Przbylski et al (3D games vs 2D does not make for a fair comparison), support for the theories relies on correlations, Granic and Lobel (playing violent shooter games can improve a players capacity to think about objects in 3D, develop problem solving skills and enhance creativity.

Question 43

media influences on aggression: desensitisation

Answer 43

Weisz and Earls (Straw Dogs + re-enactment of a trial. Results were compared to those who watched a nomrla film. Male viewers of Straw Dogs showed a greater acceptance of rape myths and sexual aggression and had less sympathy, only men, Krahe et al (habitual viewers of violent media showed lower levels of arousal as they watched violent clips.

Question 44

media influences on aggression: disinhibition

Answer 44

Berkowitz and Alioto (vengeance = more electric shocks), likelihood of disinhibition is determined by a number of factors

Question 45

media influences on aggression: cognitive priming

Answer 45

Anderson and Dill (violent computer game = more cognitively accessible thoughts), Atkin (higher levels of aggression resulted from how realistic the