ATTACHMENT

Question 1

What is an attachment?

Answer 1

Close two-way emotional bond between two individuals where each individual sees the other as essential for their own emotional security. .

Question 2

How long does it take for a human’s first attachment to develop?

Answer 2

7 months

Question 3

What are the attachment behaviours (5)

Answer 3

1. Proximity (people stay physically close to those they are attached to)
2. Separation anxiety (distress when leaving PAF presence)
3. Secure-base behaviour (tend to make regular contact with our PAFs)
4. Stranger anxiety (infant is distressed when in close proximity to strangers)
5. Reunion behaviour (infant shows pleasure when reunited with the PAF)

Question 4

What are caregiver-infant interactions?

Answer 4

Refers to the communication between a caregiver and infant. It is believed that these interactions have important functions for the child’s social development and form the basis of the attachment between the two. Particularly, the more responsive or sensitive they are to each other’s signals, the deeper the bond.

Question 5

What is a caregiver?

Answer 5

Any person who provides care for a child

Question 6

What is an infant?

Answer 6

Usually taken to refer to a child’s first year of life, although some psychologists also include the second year.

Question 7

What is reciprocity?

Answer 7

Two way/mutual process - each party responds to the other’s signals to sustain the interaction. An interaction is reciprocal when each person responds to the other and the behaviour of each party elicits a response from the other. The sensitivity lays the foundation for later attachment)

Question 8

What is interactional synchrony?

Answer 8

When a caregiver and infant reflect the actions and emotions of the other in a coordinated way. They mirror each other in terms of their facial and body movements.

Question 9

What was the procedure of Meltzoff and Moore’s study?

Answer 9

Observed the beginnings of interactional synchrony in infants as young as two weeks old. An adult displayed one of three facial expressions or one of three distinctive gestures. The infant’s response was filmed and identified by independent observers using a number of behavioural categories. The observers did not know what the infants had seen.

Question 10

What were the findings of Meltzoff and Moore’s study?

Answer 10

An association was found between the expression or gesture the adult had displayed and the actions of the babies.

Question 11

What did Isabella et al find?

Answer 11

Interactional synchrony is important for the development of mother-infant attachments. Isabella et al observed 30 mothers and infants together and assessed the degree of synchrony. They found high levels of synchrony were associated with better quality of mother-infant attachment.

Question 12

Give a piece of supporting evidence for caregiver interactions

Answer 12

Meltzoff and Moore’s study along with Isabella et al.’s study support the importance of interactional synchrony in social development and attachment. This suggests that interactional synchrony may have a special meaning as it is important for the development of attachment and to help infants to begin to acquire an understanding of what other people are thinking and feeling, which is fundamental for social relationships.

Question 13

Give a strength of research supporting the ideas about caregiver-infant interactions

Answer 13

Observations of mother infant interactions are generlaly well-controlled procedures, with both the mother and infant being filmed, often from multiple angles. The angles often include those that mean that the researcher analysing the video footage cannot see what the other person in the video is doing. Additionally, babies don’t know or care that they are being observed. As babies don’t know or care that they are being observed, this reduces the likelihood of demand characteristics and social desirability bias which are normally a problems for observational research. This ensures that the research has good IV and so we can make valid conclusions about the importance of caregiver-infant interactions. It also means that the research can be replicated to check reliability of the results.

Question 14

Give a weakness of the research supporting the ideas about caregiver-infant interactions

Answer 14

Feldman points out that IS and R simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time. They are robust phenomena that can be reliably observed, but this may not be particularly useful as it doesn’t tell us their purpose (why they are done). Therefore, we can’t understand why infants reciprocate and imitate their caregivers, so we can’t be certain that they have a special meaning.

Question 15

What are 5 general challenges that researchers face when conducting attachment research

Answer 15

1. The context may affect the infant’s behaviour, especially if they’re in an unfamiliar environment
2. They have to do fewer and shorter observation periods because there is a limited period in which the infant is awake
3. They have to be very careful to be ethical e.g., any short separation from the caregiver may be distressing to the infant
4. You can’t ask the infant why they are doing something, so it relies on inferences from the researcher
5. Infants generally move a lot - it can be difficult to distinguish what is general movement and what is deliberate movement.

Question 16

Give an overview of Schaffer’s stages of attachment

Answer 16

Attachment develops in stages/steps. They are description of how attachment develops that Schaffer developed from his research with Emerson.

Question 17

What are the 4 stages of attachment, and when do they form?

Answer 17

1. Asocial stage (first few weeks)
2. Indiscriminate attachment (from 2-7 months)
3. Specific attachment (from around 7 months)
4. Multiple attachments (after babies start to show attachment behaviour)

Question 18

Outline the asocial stage of attachment

Answer 18

The baby recognises and starts to form a bond with it carers. however, the babys behaviour towards non-human objects and humans is quite similar. babies show some preference for familiar adults, in that those individuals find it easier to calm them. babies are also happier when in the presence of other humans

Question 19

Outline the indiscriminate stage of attachment

Answer 19

They show a preference for people rather than inanimate objects and recognise and prefer familiar adults. They can distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar people. Babies accept cuddles and comfort from adult, and don’t show separation or stranger anxiety.

Question 20

Outline the specific stage of attachment

Answer 20

Majority of babies start to display anxiety towards strangers and to become anxious when separated from one particular adult. Equally, they show especial joy at reunion with that particular adult and are most comforted by them.

Question 21

Outline the multiple attachments stage in Schaffer’s stage of attachment

Answer 21

These relationships are called secondary attachments. In Schaffer and Emerson’s study, 29% of the children had secondary attachments within a month of forming a primary attachment.

Question 22

Outline the key findings of Schaffer and Emerson’s study

Answer 22

• Fathers were rarely the first sole object of attachment (3%) but 27% of them were the first joint object.
• 30% displayed multiple attachments
• 75% of infants formed an attachment with their father by 18 months

Question 23

Give evidence to undermine the stages of attachment theory (cultures)

Answer 23

In collectivist cultures, people are more focused on the needs of the group rather than the individuals. In such societies, we mught expect multuple attachments to be more common. Research supports this. It has been found that the closeness of attachment with mothers was almost twice as common in family-based sleeping arrangements compared to communal environments. This suggests that the stage model applies specifically to individualist cultures and so lacks EV. It may tell us less about how attachments develop in other cultures.

Question 24

Give one weakness of the supporting evidence for the stages of attachment (Schaffer and Emerson)

Answer 24

The sample was biased in a number of ways. All the families were from the same district and social class in the same city, at a time over 50 years ago. Child-rearing practices vary from one culture to another and one historical period to another. For instance, more women now go out to work so many children are cared for outside of the home, and more fathers choose to stay at home and care for their children. Therefore, the results of the study do not necessarily generalise well to other social and historical contexts and so may not tell us as much about how and when attachments develop today.

Question 25

Give a strength of the supporting evidence of the stages of attachment (Schaffer and Emerson’s study)

Answer 25

The study was carried out longitudinally. This means that the same children were followed-up and observed regularly. This suggests that the results will be of a higher IV than a cross-sectional study would have been because they do not have the CV of individual differences between participants. Therefore, the conclusion about how and when attachments develop is valid and so is strong support for the stages of attachment theory.

Question 26

Who is the father in attachment research?

Answer 26

Anyone who takes on the role of the main male caregiver. This can be but is not necessarily the biological father.

Question 27

Why do children turn to fathers rather than mothers?

Answer 27

• Play
• Providing challenging situations
• Secure environment to learn to be brave

Question 28

What did Schaffer and Emerson find out about the role of the father?

Answer 28

• Majority of babies did become attached to their mother first (PAF)
• Within a few weeks/months of the PA, the infants formed SA to other family members
• 75% formed an attachment with the father by 18 months

Question 29

Why might the mother and father roles be different?

Answer 29

• Most men are not psychologically equipped for forming in intense attachment because they lack emotional sensitivity that women offer (biological and social factors)
• Fathers do not become the PAF because of traditional gender roles
• Female hormones create higher levels of nurturing and therefore women are biologically predisposed to be the PAF.

Question 30

What has been found about the importance of the father’s role to the infant’s development? (Grossman)

Answer 30

Grossman carried out a longitudinal study looking at both parents’ behaviour and its relationship to the quality of children’s attachments into their teens. Quality of infant attachment to mothers, but not fathers, was related to children’s attachments in adolescence, suggesting that father attachment was less important.
However, the quality of father’s play with infants was related to the quality of adolescent attachments. This suggests that fathers have a different role in attachment - one that is more to do with play and simulation and less to do with nurturing.

Question 31

What evidence suggests that fathers can be primary attachment figures and take on the nurturing role

Answer 31

Field filmed 4 month old babies in face-to-face interactions with primary caregiver mothers, secondary caregiver fathers and primary caregiver fathers. Primary caregiver fathers, like mothers, spent more time smiling, imitating and holding infants than secondary caregiver fathers. This behaviour appears to be important in building an attachment with the infant.
Therefore, it seems that fathers can be the more nurturing attachment figure. The key to the attachment relationship is the level of responsiveness, not the gender of the parent.

Question 32

Give a weakness of the distinct role of fathers

Answer 32

Research into the role of fathers in attachment is confusing bcs researchers who study them ask different research questions. Some are interested in understanding the role of fathers as secondary attachment figures whereas others are more concerned with the father as a PAF. The former have tended to see fathers behaving differently from mothers and having a distinct role. The latter have tended to find that fathers can take on a ‘maternal’ role. These inconsistent findings are a problem because it means that psychologists cannot easily answer the seemingly straightforward question of: ‘what is the role of the father?’

Question 33

Give a weakness of the claim that fathers do not play a distinct role

Answer 33

The claim that children without fathers are no different from those with fathers suggests that the father’s role is secondary. This poses huge ethical issues as it is socially sensitive research. This could suggest that fathers do not play a significant role in their children’s lives. This could create distress for fathers and may even lead to reduced rights for fathers in legal proceedings and wider society.

Question 34

Give a piece of real world application supporting the role of the father

Answer 34

The research on role of the father can be used to offer advice to parents. Parents and prospective parents sometimes agonise over decisions like who should take the primary caregiver role. Mothers may feel pressured to stay home because of stereotypical views about the roles of mothers and fathers. Equally, fathers may feel pressured to focus on work rather than parenting. In some families, this is not the best economical decision. Therefore the research can offer reassuring advice to parents. For example, heterosexual parents can be informed that fathers are quite capable of becoming primary attachment figures (Field’s research). Also, same-sex parents and single-mother families can be informed that not having a father around does not affect their child’s development as they can take on the nurturing and play roles. This supports the external validity of the research because it can be used to reduce parental anxiety about the role of fathers.

Question 35

What was the procedure of Lorenz’s study?

Answer 35

Randomly divided a large clutch of goose eggs. Hald the eggs were hatched with the mother goose in their natural environment. The other half were hatched in an incubator and the first person they saw was Lorenz.

Question 36

What were the findings of Lorenz’s study?

Answer 36

The incubator group followed Lorenz everywhere whereas in the control group, they followed the mother duck. When the two groups were mixed - they still followed who they were following before. This is known as imprinting.

Question 37

Define imprinting

Answer 37

Innate readiness to develop a strong bond with the mother, which takes place during a specific time in development. If it doesn’t happen at this time, it probably won’t happen i.e., there is a critical period. It is irreversible and long-lasting

Question 38

Give a weakness of Lorenz’s study (birds)

Answer 38

Lorenz was interested in imprinting in birds. Although some of his findings have influenced our understanding of human development, there is a problem in generalising findings on birds to humans. The mammalian attachment system seems to be quite different from that in birds e.g. mammalian mothers show more emotional attachment to young than birds do i.e., reciprocity and interactional synchrony, and mammals may be able to form attachments at any time (although less easily than during infancy). This means that it may not be appropriate to try to generalise any of Lorenz’s ideas to humans. As such, Lorenz’s study may have low external validity and may not tell us as much about human attachment as we may have previously thought. For instance, it may be that the consequences for missing the critical period of attachment are not as severe (or more severe) in humans compared to the animals in Lorenz’s study.

Question 39

Give a piece of supporting evidence for Lorenz’s study (chickens)

Answer 39

Research has found that chickens exposed to yellow rubber gloves for feeding them during the first few weeks became imprinted on the gloves and would try to mate with them as adults. This supports the idea that young animals imprint on any moving thing that is present during the critical period of development and so suggests that his results have some external validity to other birds. Therefore, the inferences we can draw about humans from Lorenz’s study about humans having a critical period for attachment may have some validity.

Question 40

Give a strength of Lorenz’s study (control group)

Answer 40

Lorenz had a control group where the eggs were hatched with the mother goose and an experimental group where they were hatched with him. This enabled Lorenz to establish cause and effect between the first moving object that the goslings see and who they imprint on. Therefore we can be more confident that his conclusions about how imprinting occurs on the first moving object that the goslings see is universal and occurs regardless of the species of the first moving object seen by the infant animal. Therefore, we can be more confident in the inferences we draw from the study about human attachment occurring during a critical period.

Question 41

Describe the procedure and the results of Harlow’s study

Answer 41

Monkeys were in a cage with two ‘mothers’ - one made of wire (which had a bottle on it) and one made of cloth (which did not have a bottle on it). Harlow then measured how much time the monkeys spent with each ‘mother’
Findings - spent the most time with the cloth mother and only went to the wire mother for food
A mechanical teddy bear was introduced to the cage to frighten the monkey. Harlow measured which ‘mother’ the monkey ran to.
Findings - the cloth one to offer the monkey contact comfort
Control group - the bottle was on the cloth mother and the monkey went to it for both weaning and comfort.

Question 42

Explain ethical issues with Harlow’s study (ones that are relevant to non-human animals). Could the study be justified in any way?

Answer 42

Protection from harm: monkeys were deliberately scared by the mechanical teddy bear. There would also have been significant distress for the mothers when separated from their babies. However, this may be justified as the benefits (see challenge question below) may outweigh this short term distress to the monkeys.

Question 43

What long term effects might there be for the rhesus monkeys in Harlow’s study?

Answer 43

As a result of the maternal deprivation (being deprived of a real mother figure), the monkeys grew up to be socially abnormal. This included being less sociable than other monkeys, less effective parents (neglect and kill them). They were also sexually abnormal (including less skilled at mating, mated less than other monkeys). When approached by other monkeys, they would freeze, flee or be aggressive.

Question 44

Give an real-world application for Harlow’s study?

Answer 44

His findings have had a massive impact on psychologists understanding of human mother-infant attachment. Harlow showed than attachment was formed as a result of contact comfort, as well as the importance of the quality of early relationships for later social development. This supports the external validity of Harlow’s conclusions as they can be applied to species beyond monkeys to have a profound effect on mother-infant attachment, suggesting that they tell us something important about human attachment.

Question 45

Give a weakness of Harlow’s study (ethics)

Answer 45

The study has been criticised for its ethical issues. The monkeys suffered greatly as a result of the procedures e.g., difficulty forming future relationships and attachments. As the animals are quite similar to humans, the suffering is presumably quite human-like. Harlow himself was aware of the suffering he caused. These criticisms don’t challenge the findings of the research, but are important in monitoring what counts as good science.

Question 46

Give a weakness of Harlow’s study (differences between the mothers)

Answer 46

The two ‘mothers’ differed in other ways, other than being cloth-covered or not. The two heads were very different and so act as a confounding variable. It is therefore not possible to determine whether the infants preferred the cloth-covered ‘mother’ because it was cloth-covered or because it had a more attractive head. Therefore, the results lack internal validity as we can’t determine cause and effect so we can’t be entirely confident in Harlow’s conclusion about the important of contact comfort in the formation of attachment in monkeys, and by extension in humans.

Question 47

What does the learning theory of attachment propose?

Answer 47

Suggests that children learn to love whoever feeds them. Therefore, according to this theory, food is important in the formation of attachment. According to the learning theory, an attachment is formed/created through classical conditioning, and then strengthened through operant conditioning.

Question 48

How is an attachment formed according to the learning theory of attachment?

Answer 48

The process begins with an innate stimulus response. The unconditioned stimulus is food, which produces an unconditioned response of pleasure. The mother/caregiver starts as a neutral stimulus and produces a natural response. Each time the infant is fed, the mother is there too. They become associated with the pleasure of being fed. The mother then becomes an conditioned stimulus and this produces the conditioned response of pleasure, and this feeling of pleasure is stimulated even without the food. This means that the infant feels happier when the mother is near. This is the beginning of attachment.

Question 49

How is an attachment strengthened according to the learning theory of attachment?

Answer 49

Operant conditioning (involves learning to repeat a behaviour depending on its consequences).

Question 50

Define positive reinforcement

Answer 50

Increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated because it involves a reward for the behaviour. This can explain why infants cry for comfort.

Question 51

Define negative reinforcement

Answer 51

Increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated because it involves the removal of, or escape from, unpleasant consequences. When the infant is fed, the crying stops.

Question 52

Give a strength of the learning theory of attachment

Answer 52

The learning theory has some value. Infants do learn through association and reinforcement (although food may not be the main reinforcer). it may be that attention and responsiveness from a caregiver are important rewards that assist in the formation of attachment. This means that these reinforcers are able to provide some explanation of attachment, and therefore the principles behind the learning theory may have some validity in explaining attachment to a certain extent.

Question 53

Give a piece of undermining evidence for the learning theory of attachment (animal studies)

Answer 53

A range of animal studies have shown that young animals do not necessarily attach to those who feed them. Lorenz’s geese imprinted before they were fed and maintained these attachments regardless of who fed them. Harlow’s monkeys attached to a soft surrogate in preference to a wire one that dispensed milk. This suggests that attachment does not develop as a result of feeding. This suggests that the learning theory of attachment lacks validity as it cannot explain these cases.

Question 54

Give a piece of undermining evidence for the learning theory of attachment

Answer 54

Research with human infants suggests that feeding does not appear to be an important factor in humans. For example, Schaffer and Emerson’s study found that 39% of infants developed a primary attachment to the person who did not feed them. These findings are a problem for the learning theory as they suggest that feeding is not the key element to attachment and so there is no unconditioned stimulus or primary reinforcer involved. This suggests that the learning theory of attachment lacks validity as it cannot explain these cases.

Question 55

What did Bowlby propose in his monotropic theory?

Answer 55

Evolutionary theory of attachment: the idea that we have an innate tendency to form attachments because they give a survival advantage. An infant who is attached in better protected.

Question 56

What is meant by adaptation in Bowlby’s monotropic theory?

Answer 56

Attachment is important for a child’s survival. Attachment behaviours in babies and their caregivers have evolved through natural selection.

Question 57

What is meant by the critical period in Bowlby’s monotropic theory?

Answer 57

Infants are innately programmed to form an attachment. This is a biological process and takes place during a critical period of around 2 years. Infants who do not form an attachment in this time will have difficulty forming attachments later on.

Question 58

What are social releasers in Bowlby’s monotropic theory?

Answer 58

The set of innate ‘cute’ features that babies are born with that encourage attention from adults called social releasers. these activate the innate adult attachment system.

Question 59

What is meant by monotropy in Bowlby’s monotropic theory?

Answer 59

The relationship the infant has with their primary attachment figure is of special significance in theory emotional development and is a more important relationship than the rest for their development.

Question 60

How does the internal working model relate to the monotropic theory of attachment?

Answer 60

A child forms a mental representation of their relationship with their PAF (IWM). This acts as a template for all future relationships. It affects the child’s ability to be a parent.

Question 61

What is the continuity hypothesis in Bowlby’s monotropic theory?

Answer 61

Individuals who are securely attached in infancy continue to be socially and emotionally competent. They are likely to have secure relationships as adults.

Question 62

How do you remember the order of Bowlby’s monotropic theory?

Answer 62

A Surfer Can Make Ice Cream

Question 63

Give a strength of Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment

Answer 63

The IWM is testable because it predicts that patterns of attachment will be passed on from one generation to the next. Research assessed 99 mothers with 1 year old babies on the quality of their attachment to their own mothers using a standard interview. They also assessed the attachment of the babies to the mothers by observation. They found that the mothers who reported poor attachments to their own parents in the interviews were much more likely to have children classified as poor according to the observations. This supports the idea that an IWM is passed through generations (continuity hypothesis). This therefore increases the validity of Bowlby’s argument.

Question 64

Give evidence to undermine Bowlby’s monotropic theory

Answer 64

Bowlby suggested that babies form one attachment to their PAF, and this attachment is special and different. Only after this could another attachment be formed. This is not supported by Schaffer and Emerson. They found that most babies did attach to one person first. however, they also found a significant minority appeared able to form multiple attachments at the same time. This suggest that the idea of monotropy may not be entirely externally valid as it doesn’t appear to apply to all infants.

Question 65

Give support for Bowlby’s monotropic theory

Answer 65

There is clear evidence to suggest that cute infant behaviours are intended to initiate social interaction, and that doing so is important for the baby. Researchers observed mothers and babies during their interactions. PAF were instructed to ignore the babies signals. the babies initially showed some distress, but when the attachment figures continued to ignore them, some responded by curling up and lying motionless. The fact that children responded so strongly supports Bowlby’s ideas about the significance of infant social behaviour in eliciting caregiving, and therefore suggests that this element of his theory may be valid in explaining the development of attachment (social releasers trigger the innate adult attachment system).

Question 66

What type of research method was the strange situation?

Answer 66

controlled observation to measure the security of attachment that a child displays towards a caregiver. it is a lab. NOT AN EXPERIMENT

Question 67

What were the three distinct patterns in the way infants behaved (attachment types)

Answer 67

• Insecure-avoidant
• Insecure-resistant
• Secure

Question 68

Outline insecure avoidant attachment

Answer 68

• Children tend to avoid social interaction and intimacy
• They explore freely, but don’t seek proximity of show secure base behaviour
• They show little/no separation anxiety and reunion behaviour
• 15% of infants were insecure avoidant in Ainsworth’s strange situation

Question 69

Outline secure attachment

Answer 69

• Harmonious and cooperative interactions with their caregiver
• Explore happily but regularly go back to their caregiver
• Independent
• Moderate separation distress and moderate stranger anxiety
• Require and accept comfort at the reunion stage
• 70% were secure in Ainsworth’s study

Question 70

Outline insecure resistant attachment

Answer 70

• Seek and resist social intimacy and social interaction
• Seek greater proximity than others and so explore less
• Huge separation and stranger anxiety, but resist comfort upon reunion.
• 15% in Ainsworth’s study

Question 71

Give one strength of Ainsworth’s strange situation (later development)

Answer 71

Attachment type as defined by the Strange Situation is strongly predictive of later development. Babies assessed as secure typically go on to have better outcomes in life. Insecure resistant is associated with the worst outcomes, including bullying in later childhood and adult mental health problems. This supports the validity of the attachment types as it can explain subsequent different outcomes.

Question 72

Give one strength of Ainsworth’s strange situation (inter-rater reliability)

Answer 72

The SS shows good inter-rater reliability. When different observers watch the same children in the SS, they generally agree on what attachment type to classify them with. This may be because the strange situation takes place under controlled conditions and because the behavioural categories are easy to observe. Research has found agreement on attachment type for 94% of tested babies in a team of trained observers. This means that we can confidently say that the attachment type of an infant identified in the SS does not just depend on who is observing them. Therefore, we can be more confident about the distinction between the attachment types.

Question 73

Give a weakness of Ainsworth’s theory

Answer 73

There is a fourth attachment type called insecure-disorganised (type D). Disorganised children display an odd mixture of resistant and avoidant behaviours. They show very strong attachment behaviour which is suddenly followed by avoidance of looking fearful towards their caregiver. This challenges Ainsworth’s idea of attachment types as she did not predict or find evidence of this fourth type, and did not predict an overlap between types of attachment. Therefore, her attachment types may not be entirely valid.

Question 74

What were Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg trying to achieve?

Answer 74

To look at the proportions of secure, insecure-avoidant and insecure-resistant attachments across a range of countries to assess cultural variation. They also looked at differences within the same culture to get an idea of variations within a culture

Question 75

How many countries did Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg analyse?

Answer 75

8 - the UK, US, Sweden, Japan, China, Holland, Germany and Israel. The meta-analysis examined 32 studies and consulted nearly 2000 SS classifications.

Question 76

What was different about individualist and collectivist cultures in Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s study?

Answer 76

Rates of IR attachment wee similar to those in Ainsworth’s original sample, but this was not the case in collectivist cultures, where rates were over 25%. In these cultures, IA attachment was less common

Question 77

Rank countries in terms of their secure attachment type percentages

Answer 77

UK, Sweden, Japan, Holland, USA, Israel, Germany and China

Question 78

Rank countries in terms of their IA attachment type percentages

Answer 78

Germany, Holland, China, Sweden and the UK, USA, Israel and Japan

Question 79

Rank countries in terms of their IR attachment type percentages

Answer 79

Israel, Japan, China, USA, Germany, Holland, Sweden and the UK

Question 80

What was found about intra-cultural variation in Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s study

Answer 80

Intra-cultural variation was nearly 1.5 times greater than the cross-cultural variations. This was linked to the differences in socio-economic factors and levels of stress that varied between samples used within each country.

Question 81

Give a piece of supporting evidence for Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s results

Answer 81

Jin et al conducted a study to compare the proportions of attachment types in Korea to other studies. The SS was used to assess 87 children. They found that the overall proportions of secure and insecure babies were similar to those in most countries, with most children being securely attached. more of those who were insecurely attached were resistant; only one was avoidant. This distribution is similar to the distribution of attachment types found in Japan. Since Japan and Korea have quite similar childrearing styles, this similarity might be explained in terms of childrearing style.

Question 82

Give a strength of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s study

Answer 82

A strength of combining the results of attachment studies carried out in different countries is that you can end up with a very large sample e.g., nearly 2000 in van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s study. Large sample increase the internal validity of the results by reducing the impact of anomalous results caused by bad methodology or very unusual ppts. Additionally, the results are more likely to be externally valid as they will apply to other children in the country and so we can be more certain about cultural variations in attachment.

Question 83

Define separation

Answer 83

The child is not in the presence of the PAF. Brief separations, particularly where the child is with a substitute caregiver don’t have a significant impact on human development

Question 84

Define deprivation

Answer 84

The child loses an element of the PAF’s emotional care, without a suitable substitute

Question 85

Define monotropy, in Bowlby’s maternal deprivation theory

Answer 85

One particular attachment, with the PAF is of special importance to the child’s emotional development.

Question 86

Outline the role of the critical period in in Bowlby’s maternal deprivation theory

Answer 86

If the monotropic attachment is broken/disrupted during the critical period in the absence of suitable substitute care, and so the child is deprived of their emotional care for an extended period of time, they will suffer irreversible long-term psychological consequences.

Question 87

Define irreversibility in in Bowlby’s maternal deprivation theory

Answer 87

The idea that the consequences cannot be reversed

Question 88

What are the 3 consequences of maternal deptivation?

Answer 88

• Internal working model: poor
• Affectionless psychopathy: Inability to experience guilt/strong emotion for others
• Low IQ and IDD: This can be abnormally low as a result of deprivation

Question 89

Give a piece of supporting evidence for Bowlby’s maternal deprivation theory (44)

Answer 89

Bowlby’s 44 thieves study found that 14/44 of the thieves were affectionless psychopaths and 17/44 had maternal separation. Of the 14 that were affectionless, 12 had also experienced prolonged separation in the first two years of life. In the control group, 2/44 had maternal separation but 0/44 were categorised as affectionless psychopaths. This supports the idea that maternal deprivation can affect children’s emotional development and therefore suggests that the theory is valid as it may explain how affectionless psychopathy develops.

Question 90

Give a weakness of Bowlby’s 44 thieves study

Answer 90

Bowlby drew on a number of sources for evidence. However, this study has major design flaws e.g., research bias in that Bowlby carried out the assessments for affectionless psychopathy. Also, the study was only a correlation and so only a link between maternal deprivation and affectionless psychopathy was found. These criticisms compromise the IV of the study because we cannot determine cause and effect i.e., we cannot conclude that MD causes AP. As such, the study cannot provide strong support for the validity of MD theory.

Question 91

Give a piece of undermining evidence for Bowlby’s maternal deprivation theory (Lewis)

Answer 91

Lewis partially replicated the 44 thieves study on a larger scale, looking at 500 young people. In her sample, a history of MD did not predict criminality or difficulty forming close relationships. This is a problem for the theory, because it suggests that other factors may affect the outcome of MD and therefore the theory may not be completely valid.

Question 92

Define institutionalisation

Answer 92

Institutionalisation refers to the effects of living in an institutional setting e.g., hospital, orphanage, where the children live for long, continuous periods of time. There is often very little emotional care provided. Institutionalisation results in the child adopting the rules and norms of the institution that can impair functioning. These effects are irreversible.

Question 93

Give 5 effects of institutionalisation

Answer 93

• Physical underdevelopment
• Intellectual under-functioning/low IQ
• Disinhibited attachment
• Poor parenting
• Lack of IWM

Question 94

Outline the procedure of Rutter et al’s study

Answer 94

Rutter et al followed a group of 165 Romanian orphans in Britain to test to what extent good care could make up for poor early experiences in institutions. Of this group, 11 were adopted before the age of two, and a further 54 by the age of 4. Physical, cognitive and emotional development were assessed at ages 4, 6, 11 and 15 years. A group of 52 children adopted at the same time in Britain served as a control group.

Question 95

Outline the results of Rutter et al’s study

Answer 95

Romanian orphans (at the time of adoption) lagged behind their British counterparts on all measures. By the age of 4, some of the children had caught up (true for almost all orphans before the age of 6 months).
When arrived in the UK, half of the adoptees showed signs of IDD, and the majority were severely malnourished.
At age 11, the adopted children showed differential rates of recovery which related to their age of adoption,
The mean IQ of those adopted before the age of 6 months was 102, compared with 86 for those adopted btw 6 months-2 years, and 77 for those adopted after two years. These differences remained at age 16.

Question 96

What did Rutter et al conclude?

Answer 96

Long term consequences may be less severe than was once thought if children had the opportunity to form attachments. However, when children do not form attachments, then the consequences are likely to be severe.

Question 97

Outline Le Mare and Audet’s study

Answer 97

They reported findings from a longitudinal study of 36 Romanian orphans adopted to families in Canada. The DV were physical growth and health. The adopted orphans were physically smaller than the matched control group at age four and a half, but this difference disappeared by 10 and a half. The same was true for physical health.

Question 98

Give a real-world application of Romanian orphan studies

Answer 98

Studying Romanian orphans has enhanced our understanding of the effects of institutionalisation. Such results have led to improvements in the way that children are cared for e.g., orphanages and children’s homes now avoid having large numbers of caregivers for each child. This means that the children have the chance to develop normal attachments and helps avoid disinhibited attachment. This suggests that the research has been immensely valuable in practical terms, supporting its EV.

Question 99

Give a weakness of Rutter et al’s study

Answer 99

It is possible that the conditions were do bad that the results cannot be applied to understanding the impact of better quality institutional care or any situation where children experience deprivation e.g., Romanian orphanages had particularly poor standards of care. This unusual situational variables means that the study may lack EV and so tells us less about the effects of institutionalisation than previously thought.

Question 100

Give a weakness of Rutter et al’s study

Answer 100

The children were not randomly allocated to conditions. The researchers did not interfere with the adoption process, which may mean that the more sociable children were adopted early and so their sociability acted as a confounding variable. This compromises the IV of the conclusions about the effects of institutionalisation because we cannot determine cause and effect.

Question 101

What do you have to include when describing early influence on later attachments?

Answer 101

• Define the IWM
• Define the continuity hypothesis, including general information about secure, insecure-avoidant and insecure-resistant
• Give a couple examples of relationships it impacts for each attachment type

Question 102

How are secure infants in later childhood friendships?

Answer 102

This leads to the best quality friendships - rated highest for social competence, more popular and more empathetic (expectations that others are both friendly and trusting from the IWM)

Question 103

How are IA and IR infants in later childhood friendships?

Answer 103

Both have difficulties

Question 104

What did Myron-Wilson and Smith find?

Answer 104

IA infants are most likely to be bullied while IR infants are most likely to be bullies (questionnaire to 196 children aged 7-11 from London)

Question 105

What did McCarthy find out about adult friendships? (L11)

Answer 105

Studied 40 adult women who were assessed as infants for their attachment type. Those assessed as securely attached had the best adult friendships. Adults classified as IR had particular problems maintaining friendships, whilst those classified as IA struggled with intimacy in romantic relationships.

Question 106

What did Hazan and Shaver find out about romantic relationships as an adult?

Answer 106

Positive correlation between attachment type and love experiences
Secure attachments were most likely to have good and longer lasting romantic experiences
IA tended to reveal jealousy and fear of intimacy
IR tended to fall in love easily but found it difficult to find true love

Question 107

What did Bailey et al find out about early influence of attachment type on parenting

Answer 107

Found that parenting style was based on the IWM, so attachment type is passed down through generations.

Question 108

Give a piece of supporting evidence for the influence of early attachment type on later relationships

Answer 108

Researchers assessed 99 mothers with one-year-old babies on the quality of their attachment to their own mothers using a standard interview procedure. They also assessed the attachment of the babies to the mothers by observation. They found that the mothers who reported poor attachments to their own parents in the interviews were much more likely to have children classified as poor according to the observations. This supports the idea that an IWM is passed down through generations. This therefore supports the validity of Bailey’s findings and therefore the theory as a whole.

Question 109

Give a weakness of the influence on early attachment on later relationships

Answer 109

The research suggests that very early experiences have a fixed effect on later adult relationships, and therefore children who are insecurely attached as infants are doomed to experience emotionally unsatisfactory relationships as adults. This is overly determinist. Fortunately, this is not the case as researchers have found plenty of evidence where ppts were experiencing happy adult relationships despite not having been securely attached as infants. Overall, the research does not suggest that an individual’s past unalterably determines the future cause of their relationships. This suggests that the effects of early attachment on later relationships may not be entirely valid.

Question 110

Give a piece of undermining evidence for the theories of early influence on later attachment

Answer 110

Not all studies support the IWM. Zimmerman assessed infant attachment types and adolescent attachment to parents. There was very little relationships between the quality of both types of attachment. This is a problem, because it is not what we would expect if IWMs were important in development. This therefore suggests that the effects of early attachment on later relationships may not be entirely valid.