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PSYCHOLOGY > ISSUES AND DEBATES > Flashcards

ISSUES AND DEBATES Flashcards

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1
Q

Define hard determinism

A

The view that all behaviour is caused by something (internal or external), so free will is an illusion

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2
Q

Define soft determinism

A

The view that behaviour may be predictable but there is also room for personal choice from a limited range of possibilities

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3
Q

Define biological determinism

A

The belief that behaviour is caused by biological influences that we cannot control

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4
Q

Define environmental determinism

A

The belief that behaviour is caused by features of the environment that we cannot control.

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5
Q

Define psychic determinism

A

The belief that behaviour is caused by unconscious psychodynamic conflicts that we cannot control

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6
Q

Define causal explanations

A

Every event in the universe has a cause and that causes can be explained using general laws. Knowledge of causes and the formulation of laws are important as they allow scientists to predict and control events in the future.

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7
Q

Give 3 examples of aspects of psychology that suffer from biological determinism

A
  • The biological approach
  • Genetic/neural explanations of schizophrenia
  • Biological explanations of OCD
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8
Q

Give 3 examples of aspects from psychology that suffer from environmental determinism

A
  • The behaviourist approach
  • Learning theory of attachment
  • Acquisition and maintenance of phobias
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9
Q

Give 2 examples of aspects from psychology that suffer from psychic determinism

A
  • Bowlby’s maternal deprivation theory
  • Psychodynamic approach
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10
Q

Give 3 examples of aspects from psychology that suffer from free will

A
  • Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
  • Roger’s person-centred counselling
  • The humanistic approach
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11
Q

Give examples of hard determinism

A
  • Any biological, behaviourist and psychodynamic theories
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12
Q

Give examples of soft determinism

A
  • Cognitive approach
  • SLT
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13
Q

Give a piece of undermining evidence for both biological and environmental determinism

A

It is unlikely that either environmental or biological determinism will be found for 100% certainty in a behaviour. For example, a review of twin studies found that 68% of MZ twins shared OCD compared to 31% of DZ twins. These results suggest that genes do not entirely determine behaviour, but also that the environment cannot be the sole determining factor in behaviour. Therefore, environmental explanations cannot solely determine behaviour.

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14
Q

Give a piece of undermining evidence for determinism

A

This position is incompatible with our notions of legal responsibility and creates an issue in the treatment of mental disorders. In US criminal cases, there have been attempts to claim that their behaviour was caused by inherited aggressive tendencies and therefore that they should not be punished with the death penalty. In a court of law, offenders are held morally accountable for their actions. Therefore, a determinist position may be undesirable because it would allow individuals to ‘excuse’ their behaviour.

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15
Q

Give a strength of the free will argument

A

Everyday experience gives the impression that we are constantly choosing our thoughts and actions. Therefore, the concept has face validity. Research suggests that people who have an internal locus of control tend to be more mentally healthy. Research has found that adolescents with a strong belief in fatalism (believing that their lives were decided by events outside of their control) were at significantly greater risk of developing depression. This suggests that even if we do not have free will, the fact that we think we do may have a positive impact on mind and behaviour.

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16
Q

Define the nature-nurture debate

A

Concerned with the extent to which aspects of behaviour are a product of inherited or acquired characteristics

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17
Q

Define nature

A

Inherited influences, or heredity. Some psychologists argue that all human characteristics are innate

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18
Q

Define nurture

A

Influence of the experience and the environment. This view is an important feature of the behaviourist approach

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19
Q

Define heredity

A

The genetic transmission of both mental and physical characteristics from one generation to another

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20
Q

Define the environment (n/n)

A

Any influence on human behaviour that is non-genetic. This may range from prenatal influences in the womb to cultural and historical influences at a societal level. It includes biological influences.

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21
Q

Define the interactionist approach (n/n)

A

A way to explain the development of behaviour in terms of a range of factors, including both biological and psychological ones. Most importantly such factors don’t simply add together but combine in a way that can’t be predicted by each one separately i.e., they interact.

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22
Q

Define the heritability coefficient (n/n)

A

Proportion used to quantify the variation of a trait or characteristic that is due to a genotype.

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23
Q

Give 3 examples of nature topics in a-level psychology

A
  • Biological explanations of schizophrenia
  • Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment
  • Biological explanations of OCD
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24
Q

Give 3 examples of nurture topics in a-level psychology

A
  • Psychological explanations of schizophrenia
  • Learning explanation of attachment (CC and OC)
  • Mowrer’s two-process model of phobias (CC and OC)
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25
Q

Give 2 examples of interactionist topics in a-level psychology (n/n)

A
  • Frustration-aggression hypothesis
  • Diathesis-stress model
  • Social learning theory
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26
Q

Outline how the diathesis-stress model is an example of an interactionist approach in a-level psychology (n/n)

A

An example of an interactionist approach is the Diathesis-stress model, which suggests nature and nurture interact to cause mental illness. A biological vulnerability can be triggered off by the environment. In schizophrenia, this is often observed as a genetic predisposition to the disease, symptoms for which the environment then triggers off - trauma is widely cited.

27
Q

Give a weakness of the nature-nurture debate (specifically nature)

A

Nativists suggest that our inherited genetic make-up determines our characteristics and behaviour, whilst the environment has little input. This extreme determinist stance has led to controversy, such as linking IQ to race and intelligence, and the application of eugenics policies, and justification of discriminatory practices in the workplace and wider society. This could be used to shape social policy without considering the effects of the environment. In extreme cases, this has led to social control such as compulsory sterilisation for the ‘feeble-minded’.

28
Q

Give a weakness of the nature-nurture debate, but a strength of the interactionist approach

A

Your life experiences can shape your biology (e.g., Macguire’s taxi drivers with bigger spatial memories than controls). This is not because they were born this way, but because their hippocampi had responded to increased use. This supports the view that nature and nurture can’t be meaningfully separated

29
Q

Give a strength of the nature-nurture debate (supporting the interactionist approach)

A

Constructivism suggests that people create their own ‘nurture’ by actively selecting environments that are appropriate for their ‘nature’. We engage in what Plomin calls ‘niche-building’ (passive i.e., a child who is genetically more aggressive might provoke an aggressive response in others), and ‘niche-picking’ (active process i.e., as children grow older they seek out experiences and environments that suit their genes). Constructivism therefore suggests that attachment’s influence on children’s behaviour is perhaps better seen as an interaction between a child’s innate temperament and the parents’ reaction to the child than Bowlby’s monotropic theory and Learning theory of attachment knowledge. This supports the view that nature and nature cannot be meaningfully separated, and as such supports the Interactionist approach.

30
Q

Define holism

A

An argument or theory which proposes that it only makes sense to study an indivisible system rather than its constituent parts

31
Q

Define reductionism

A

The belief that human behaviour is understood by studying the smaller constituent parts

32
Q

Define biological reductionism

A

A form of reductionism which attempts to explain behaviour at the lowest biological level

33
Q

Define environmental reductionism

A

The attempt to explain all behaviour in terms of stimulus response links that have been learned through experience

34
Q

Define levels of expectation (holism-reductionism)

A

The idea that there are several ways that can be used to explain behaviour. The lowest level considers physiological/biological explanations, the middle level considers psychological explanations and the highest level considers social and cultural explanations.

35
Q

Give 3 examples of aspects of psychology that suffer from biological reductionism

A
  • The biological approach
  • Biological explanations of OCD and schizophrenia
  • Bowlby’s theory of attachment
36
Q

Give 3 examples of aspects of psychology that suffer from environmental determinism

A
  • The behaviourist approach
  • The learning explanation of attachment
  • The two-process model of phobias
37
Q

Give 3 examples of aspects of psychology that suffer from holism

A
  • The humanistic approach
  • Jahoda’s deviation from ideal mental health
  • Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
38
Q

Give a piece of supporting evidence for holism

A

These explanations provide a more complete understanding of behaviour. There are aspects of social behaviour that cannot be understood at the level of the individual group members. For example, the effects of conformity to social roles and the deindividuation of prisoners and guards in Zimbardo’s study could not be understood by studying the ppts as individuals; it was the interaction between people and the behaviour of the group that was important. This suggests that holistic explanations provide a more complete and global (and therefore potentially more valid) understanding of behaviour than reductionist approaches.

39
Q

Give a piece of undermining evidence for holism

A

It is difficult to establish how much each individual factor contributes to any particular behaviour. For instance, if we accept that there are many factors that contribute to mental illness, it becomes difficult to establish which is most influential, and therefore which one to use as a basis for therapy. Using the principles of reductionism, biological and behavioural approaches narrow down causes effectively, giving a useful starting point for therapy; be that drug therapy of behavioural therapy such as flooding. This suggests that when it comes to finding solutions for real-world problems, lower levels of explanations may be more appropriate.

40
Q

Give a piece of supporting evidence for reductionism

A

Recognises the importance of biological explanations in human behaviour. A consequence of this has been the development of drug therapies. these treatments have led to a considerable reduction in institutionalisation since the 1950s. It is also a more humane approach to the treatment of mental illness as it does not blame the person, which may in turn lead to greater tolerance of the mentally ill. This can be considered an issue for approaches that air towards higher levels of explanation and encompassing of a more holistic perspective; for example the cognitive approach to depression. This suggests that when it comes to finding solutions for real-world problems, lower levels of explanations are appropriate ‘and can encourage greater understanding of mental illness in society, reducing stigma and consequently increasing wellbeing’.

41
Q

Define the idiographic approach

A

An approach to research that focuses more on the individual case as a means of understanding behaviour rather than aiming to formulate general laws of behaviour

42
Q

What does the idiographic approach say about how people are studied

A

People are studied as unique entities, each with their own subjective experiences, motivations and values

43
Q

What are the main research methods that the idiographic approach uses?

A

Reflect the central aims of the research: to describe the richness of human experience and gain insight into the persons unique way of viewing the world

44
Q

Define the nomothetic approach

A

General laws of human behaviour provide a benchmark against which people can be compared, classified and measured

45
Q

What methodology is associated with the nomothetic approach

A

Quantitative experimental methods are best to identify the universal laws governing behaviour
The individual will be classified with others and measured as a score upon a dimension, or be a statistic supporting a general principle.

46
Q

Give some examples of idiographic approaches in psychology

A
  • Humanistic approach
  • Psychodynamic approach
  • Freud
47
Q

Give some examples of the nomothetic approach in psychology

A
  • Biological approach
  • Biopsychology
  • Behaviourist and cognitive approach
  • WMM and MSM
48
Q

Give a piece of supporting evidence for the idiographic approach

A

Provides a complete and global account of the individual. This may complement the nomothetic approach by shedding further light on general laws or indeed by challenging such laws. For example, a single case may generate hypotheses for further study. It is also true that in the case of brain damaged individuals, findings may reveal important insights about normal functioning which may contribute to our overall understanding. For instance, when looking at HM who had suffered from brain damage - the results that there are multiple different memory stores contributed to many other research studies and treatments for memory disorders worldwide

49
Q

Give a piece of supporting evidence for the nomothetic approach in psychology

A

The processes involved in this research tend to be more scientific, mirroring those employed within the natural sciences, testing under standardised conditions, using data sets that provide group averages, statistical analysis, prediction and control i.e., IQ testing. Such processes have enabled psychologists to establish norms of ‘typical’ behaviour, arguable giving the discipline of psychology greater credibility. An example of this could include the behaviourist approach, where you could use the example of testing rats in cages to provide cause and effect evidence for the laws of operant and classical conditioning

50
Q

Give a piece of undermining evidence for the nomothetic approach

A

The preoccupation with general laws, prediction and control has led to an accusation of ‘losing the whole person’ within psychology. Knowing there is a 1% lifetime risk of schizophrenia tells us little about what life is like for someone who has the disorder. Similarly, lab studies involving memory tests see participants as sets of scored rather than individual people, and their subjective experience of the situation is ignored. This means that in searching for generalities, this approach may sometimes overlook the richness of human experience.

51
Q

Give a piece of undermining evidence for the idiographic approach

A

Qualitative methods used within this approach e.g., unstructured observations, tend to be the least scientific in that conclusions often rely on this subjective interpretation of the researcher, and as such, are open to bias. The humanistic approach makes most use of the idiographic approach’s qualitative methods such as unstructured interviews; naturalistic, unstructured observations, and focus groups. The impact of this on the Humanistic approach has been that it tends to be regarded as the least scientific if the approaches in psychology. For generalisation purposes there is less validity, thus the idiographic approach and it’s main protagonist the Humanistic approach can be considered lacking in external validity.

52
Q

Define ethical guidelines

A

Rulers that psychologists should follow in order to make their investigations as ethical as possible. These are created by the BPS in their Code of Conduct and Ethical Guidelines

53
Q

What are ethical issues

A

When a conflict exists between the rights of participants in research studied and the trials of research to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data

54
Q

Define informed consent

A

Involves making ppts aware of the aims of the research, the procedures, the rights and also what their data will be used for

55
Q

Define deception

A

Deliberately misleading or withholding information from pots at any stage of the investigation

56
Q

What is protection of participants

A

When participants are protected from physical and psychological harm

57
Q

Define confidentiality

A

Refers to our rights, enshrined in law under the Data Protection Act, to have any personal data protected

58
Q

What is meant by privacy

A

When the participants have the right to control information about themselves

59
Q

Define ethical implications

A

The consequences of any research in terms of the effects on individual participants or in the way in which certain groups of people are subsequently regarded. There may also be consequences on a wider societal level

60
Q

Define social sensitivity

A

Studied in which there are potential consequences of implication, either directly for the participants in the research or for the class of individuals represented by the research

61
Q

Describe the 3 concerns that psychologists should be mindful of when conducting socially sensitive research

A
  1. Research question
  2. Dealing with the participants
  3. The way findings are used
62
Q

Give a strength of the role of socially sensitive research

A

It has been argued that studied of underrepresented groups and issues may promote a greater sensitivity and understanding of these. This can help to reduce prejudice and encourage acceptance. Additionally, socially sensitive research has benefitted society e.g., research into the unreliability of EWT has reduced the risk of miscarriages of justice within the legal system. This suggests that socially sensitive research may play a valuable role in society.

63
Q

Give a piece of undermining evidence for ethical issues in psychology (USA)

A

In the USA in the 1920s and 1930s, a large number of US states enacted legislation that led to the compulsory sterilisation of many citizens on the grounds that they were ‘feeble minded’ and a drain on society. This included people deemed to be of low intelligence, drug or alcohol addicts and the mentally ill. The rationale, supported by many sections of the scientific and psychological community at the time, was that such people were ‘unfit’ to breed. The fact that socially sensitive research has been used to validate discriminatory practices in the past is as an argument against its widespread adoption.

64
Q

Give a piece of undermining evidence for ethical issues in psychology (Sieber and Stanley)

A

Seiner and Stanley warn that the way in which research questions are phrased and investigated may influence the way in which findings are interpreted. For example, research into ‘alternative relationships’ has been guilty of a form of heterosexual bias - homosexual relationships have been compared and judged against heterosexual norms. This suggests that investigators must approach their research with an open mind and be prepared to have their preconceptions challenged if they are to avoid misrepresenting minority groups

PSYCHOLOGY (10 decks)

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