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Biology 3 4 > Relatedness of Species (chapters 9-10) > Flashcards

Relatedness of Species (chapters 9-10) Flashcards

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1
Q

Allele

A

Alternate form of a gene

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2
Q

Gene Pool

A

All possible alleles at all gene loci of a popularion of a single species at a time

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3
Q

Spontaneous Mutation

A

Mutation occurring for no particular reson

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4
Q

Induced Mutation

A

Mutation caused by ionising radiation or a chemical mutagen

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5
Q

Mutation

A

Unpredictable or random change to DNA of an organism
Cannot be predicted what gene will be affected
Most mutations have NO EFFECT on organisms

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6
Q

Chemical Caused Mutation

A

Mutations caused by chemicals which interact with DNA
eg. Heavy Metal Can:
- Cause sugar phosphate backbone to break
- Inhibit enzumes which repair DNA

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7
Q

Block Mutations

A

Block mutation involved more than a single gene
Include inversions, deletions, duplications and translocations

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8
Q

Point Mutations

A

Mutation at the nucleotide level
Normally involves change to a single nucleotide
eg. Single base substitution

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9
Q

Single Base Substitution - Missense Mutation

A

Substitution mutations which code for a different amino acid, altering the primary
structure of the polypeptide.

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10
Q

Single Base Substitution - Addition Mutation

A

Extra base added

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11
Q

Single Base Substitution - Nonsense Mutation

A

Substitution mutations which prematurely end the translation of a gene’s mRNA.
- Creates stop codon

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12
Q

Single Base Substitution - Silent Mutation

A

Substitution mutations that have no effect on the resulting amino acid sequence.
Due to the degenerate nature of the genetic code

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13
Q

Single Base Deletion

A

Point Mutations that cause a frameshift mutation

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14
Q

Frameshift Mutation

A

Addition or deletion of one or two nucleotides, which alters the reading frame of all the following nucleotides

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15
Q

Substitution Mutation

A

Single nucleotide exchanged for different nucleotide

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16
Q

Phenotype

A

Physical, Expressed

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17
Q

Genotype

A

The genetic makeup of an individual organism

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18
Q

Environmental Selection Pressures

A

External agents influencing species ability to survive
- Facilitate mechanisms of natural selection
- Abiotic or Biotic
eg. Predation, Disease, Competition

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19
Q

Impact of Selection Pressures

A

Some phenotypes have advantages over others when it comes to survivability or reproducability
Leads to change of allele frequency over time
Very slight differences in survival rate can have big differences on allele frequency
eg. In dense rainforests, plants need large surface area to photosynthesize
- Plants with allele for larger surface area more likely to survive
- More likely to reach next generation

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20
Q

Selection Pressure Questions (x3)

A
  • What is the selection pressure?
  • What is the advantageous phenotypical trait?
  • What is the advantageous allele?
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21
Q

Natural Selection

A

Process whereby members of a population that are better sorted to environment are more likely to survive and pass traits on to next generation
- beneficial traits become more ocmmon in population
- biodioversity decreases as a result
- ‘survival of the fittest’

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22
Q

Four conditions of Natural Selection

A

1) Variation
2) Selection Pressure
3) Selective Advantage
4) Heritability

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23
Q

Natural Selection Condition - Variation

A

Individuals in a population vary genetically, leading to phenotypic differences

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24
Q

Natural Selection Condition - Selection Pressures

A

Environmental selection pressure impacts survivability of organisms and ability to reproduce

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25
Q

Natural Selection Condition - Selective Advantage

A

Individuals with phenotypes that are advantageous under environmental selection pressure are conferred a selective advantage

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26
Q

Natural Selection Condition - Heritability

A

Advantageous traits must be heritability, allowing to be passed from parent to offspring
Overtime advantageous allele will increase

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27
Q

Genetic Diversity

A

Measures of genetic variation within species/population
- high genetic diversity helps maintain the health of a population
- provides flexibility to adapt

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28
Q

Lack of Diversity

A

Example: Irish Potato Famine
- deadly blight caused severe famine
- only 1 species of potato was grown, no ability to adapt to blight
- due to lack of diversity

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29
Q

Sexual Selection

A

Where selection pressure is ability to find mate
For some species, natural selection favours individuals who reproduce at risk of survival

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30
Q

Block Mutation - Deletion

A

When part of DNA molecule not copied in DNA replication
Can be as small as single nucleotide or as big as entire chromosome
eg. Turner Syndrome

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31
Q

Block Mutation - Duplication

A

Piece of DNA abnormally copies one or more times
May alter protein function

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32
Q

Block Mutation - Inversion

A

Portion of chromosome breaks off, flips, then reattaches
Genetic material inverted

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33
Q

Block Mutation - Translocation

A

Portion of one chromosome transferred to another chromosome
Two Types:
- Reciprocal Translocation
- Robertsonian Translocation

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34
Q

Reciprocal Translocation

A

Segments from different chromosomes exchanged

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35
Q

Robertsonian Translocation

A

Entire chromosome attached to another centromere

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36
Q

Genetic Drift

A

Change in allele frequency in gene pool due to random chance
Genetic drift only ever has significant effect on alelle frequency in gene pool of small population
- bottleneck > decreases diversity
- founder > decreases diversity

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37
Q

Founder Effect

A

the reduction in genetic diversity that occurs when a population is derived from a small unrepresentative sample of the original population

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38
Q

Genetic Bottleneck

A

Genetic drift where frequency of alleles is changed due to a near extinction event
= reduced genetic diversity
eg. Galapagos Finches
- El Nino Monsoon - decimated large food sources on islands
- Lack of larger seads, growing vines caused lots of small seads
- Large beaked finches struggled to reach small seads, many died

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39
Q

Gene Flow

A

Transfer of genetic information from one population to another by migration
Movement of individuals can introduce new Alleles or change Allele frequency in population
- If population is not isolated
- Breeding between populations of some species
- Causes Mutations
- Increases genetic diversity
- Immigration > increases diversity
- Emigration > decreases diversity

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40
Q

Unrepresentative

A

Doesn’t represent all alleles

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41
Q

Factors increasing diversity (x3)

A
  • Mutation
  • Sexual reproduction
  • Gene flow
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42
Q

Factors decreasing diversity (x3)

A
  • Natural selection
  • Gene flow
  • Genetic drift
    > Founder effect
    > Bottleneck effect
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43
Q

Biological Concept of Species

A

A group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals that actually mate and produce fertile offspring

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44
Q

Morphological Concept of species

A

Defining a species as a group with similar morphology (structure)
eg. Humans
> Homo Sapiens and Homo Neanderthelensis

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45
Q

Phylogenic Concept of species

A

Based on evolutionary history
Species defined by smallest clade that can trace its evolutionary origins to a common ancestor
More important than biological concept, as Phylogenic can be applied to asexual organisms and even bacteria

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46
Q

Interspecific Hybrids

A

Combination of two different parent species
Hybrids often become infertile
eg. Mule
- Because horses have 64 chromosomes and donkeys have 62
- Mule inherits 63 total chromosomes, leaving one chromosome without a pair - meiosis cannot occur

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47
Q

Fertile hybrids

A

Some species who mate with closely related species are able to produce fertiel offsprings
eg. Ligers
- Female ligers are fertile, males are not

48
Q

Alopatric Speciation

A

One species may diverge, giving rise to two new species, when:
- Parent population divided by geographical barrier
- No gene flow between daughter population
- Mutations arise in each population
- Different selection pressures operate in each population
Eventually daughter populations become so different that they can no longer mate and produce fertile offsprings with each other

49
Q

Adaptive Radiation

A

Rapid speciation of one species into many, filling different ecological niches
eg. Galapagos Finches
- evolved to adapt to different sources of food

50
Q

Sympatric Speciation

A

Speciation with strong gene flow
Evolution of a new species from a surviving ancestral species, while both continue to inhabit same geographical region
Sympatric speciation uncommon in animals, though very common in plants, as they are polyploidy
- Sympatric Speciation is thought to occur in animals due to disruptive selection

51
Q

Polyploidy

A

Possessing more than 2 sets of chromosomes

52
Q

Disruptive selection

A

Selects against average individual in population

53
Q

Mould Fossils

A

fossil formed when a living thing decomposes underneath sediment, creating a cavity in the shape of the dead organism

54
Q

Cast Fossil

A

fossil formed when a
mould fossil is filled with sediment

55
Q

Petrified Fossil

A

impression fossils, but the organism does not decay, it is simply replaced with minerals over time.

56
Q

Trace Fossil

A

Geological records of activity (footprints, scats)

57
Q

Conditions for Fossilization (x4)

A
  • left intact
  • rapidly buried, preferrably underwater
  • decompose slowly due to lack of oxygen
  • consisting at least partly of hard parts
58
Q

Fossil Record provides evidence that:

A
  • Life in past was relatively simple
  • Many species that used to exist are now extinct
  • Many existing species did not live in the past
  • Where species lived and why
  • Some species that existed where transitional between ancestral and modern species
59
Q

Transitional Fossils

A

Both primitive and derived traits - providing evidence ancestral species evolved to become more modern

60
Q

Primitive Trait

A

Traits possessed by earlier, ancestral species

61
Q

Derived Trait

A

Trait unique to descendant species

62
Q

Punctuated Equilibrium Theory

A

Proposed that after a period of rapid evolution following a speciation event, species will become stable for long time
Quick bursts rather than gradual

63
Q

Strategraphic Correlation

A

Involves Matching layers of rock in one location with rock layers in another
Often done using index fossils

64
Q

Index fossils

A

Fossil useful for dating and correlating strata in which it was found
- Fossils dated using radiometric methods - found near volcanic rock
- When some fossils are found in other sedimentary layers, they can be used to date those layers
- Relatively short lived

65
Q

Conditions for index fossil: (x4)

A
  • Distinctive
  • Abundant
  • Distributed World Wide
  • Have existed for only a short period of time
66
Q

Big Picture Order

A

Taxonomic hierarchy system to classify organisms

67
Q

Steps of Fossilization (x4)

A

Step 1
Organism dies underwater

Step 2
Layers of sediment accumulate on top of dead organisms

Step 3
Hard parts of organism impregnate with minerals

Step 4
Uplift and Erosion

68
Q

Preserved Remains

A

Organisms preserved in amber, ice or tar

69
Q

Carbon Film

A

Formed when liquids or gases leave a ‘picture’ on a surface

70
Q

Homologous Structures

A

Structure with same ‘plan’ but different purpose

71
Q

Evidence of evolution from homologous structures

A

Bats have wings, but same arrangement of bones as human hand
Suggests bats have evolved from ancestor wwith 4 fingers and thumb
Mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians have the same arrangement of forelimb bones
Yet they serve difference functions within different organisms
Homology suggests modifications to basic plan of common ancestor’s forelimbs

72
Q

Evidence of Evolution from Vestigial Structures

A

In many cases. vestigial structures have been reduced in size, and are only partially formal
Existence is enough evidence to prove species descended from ancestor that required that feature
eg. Diminitive wings of emus, or kiwis

73
Q

Vestigial Structure

A

Anatomical feature that no longer surves the purpose in current form of species, but did in ancestor

74
Q

Evidence of Evolution from Comparative DNA Sequences

A

Species more closely related are more biochemically similar
Species that have diverged from common ancestor more recently have fewer base differences in there DNA, as they have had less time for mutations to accumulate in their genome than species sharing ancient ancestor
Measured through:
> DNA Sequencing
> DNA-DNA Hybrization

75
Q

DNA Hybridization

A

Method of comparing degree of similarity between DNA from two species, by joining, and testing how tightly joined they are

76
Q

DNA Hybridization Steps (WILL IT BE ON SAC?)

A
77
Q

Dideoxynucleotide

A

nucleotide missing an oxygen on the third carbon, prevents other nucleotides being added

78
Q

DNA Sequencing

A
79
Q

Evidence of Evolution from Comparative Amino Acid Sequences

A

Possible to determine relatedness of species based on similarity of amino acid sequences in proteins
There are fewer differences in Amino Acid sequences, as DNA mutations do not effect amino acid sequences
For this reason, proteins are often used to compare relatedness of more distantly related species
Most useful proteins to compare are those shared by all living things

80
Q

Relative Dating

A

A comparison of age
Relative dating arranges geological events in a sequence
Seen as valuable evidence in support of speciation
- Ancestrall species appear to be responsible for appearance of subsequent species
Does not give indication of exact age of fossils, but rather whether a fossil is older or younger than another

81
Q

Law of Succession

A

that fossils of the same age will be in the same layer of sedimentary rock
and fossils found in a higher or lower sedimentary layer will be younger or older, respectively.

82
Q

Stratigraphy

A

branch of geology concerned with the order and relative position of rock layers and their relationship to the geological timescale

83
Q

Law of Superposition

A

‘in an undisturbed sequence of rocks, the oldest layer lies at the bottom and successive higher layers are younger’

84
Q

Transitional Fossils

A

Show traits between ancestral group and its descendants

85
Q

Absolute Dating

A

Method used to determine age of rock layers, fossils or geological events as accurately as possible
Atoms have isotopes, which break down over time and go through radioactive decay
After every half life, 50% of parent element decays into daughter element

86
Q

Radiometric Dating

A

method of absolute dating that uses minerals in rocks as geological clocks

87
Q

Radioactive Decay

A

Half the time (half life) taken for mineral to radioactively decay

88
Q

Radioactive Isotopes (x4)

A
  • Carbon-14
  • Uranium-235
  • Potassium-40
  • Rubidium-87
89
Q

Carbon-14

A

Daughter Product: Nitrogen-14
Half Life: 5730 years
- Used for dating organic remains
- Useful up to 60,000 years

90
Q

Uranium-235

A

Daughter Product: Lead-207
Half Life: 710,000,000 years
- Used for dating igneous rocks containing uranium based material
- Useful for 10,000,000 years and older

91
Q

Potassium-40

A

Daughter Product: Argon-40
Half Life: 1,300,000,000 Years
- Used for dating igneous rocks containing k-bearing minerals
- Useful 500,000 years and older

92
Q

Rubidium-87

A

Daughter Product: Strontium-87
Half Life: 47,000,000,000 years
- Used to date most ancient igneous rocks

93
Q

Taxonomy

A

Classification and naming of organisms

94
Q

Linneaus’ Hierarchal Classification System

A

Classification based on physicality, such as fur, or teeth, rather than behaviour, such as flying

95
Q

Related

A

Sharing a recent common ancestor - relative to the context of discussion

96
Q

Phylogeny

A

Evolutionary history of species or group of species
- We can estimate how long since two species shared a common ancestor by comparing DNA
> Sequencing Genome
> DNA-DNA hybridization

97
Q

Taxonomy based on genetic similarity

A

Modern taxonomy is based on evolutionary relatedness
Based on how long since they shared a common ancestor

98
Q

Taxonomy based on Evolutionary Relatedness

A

In most cases, classification based on phylogenetics will align with classification based on physical features

99
Q

Phylogenic trees

A

Diagram showing evolutionary relationships between species
Further to the left = further back in time to find common ancestor

100
Q

Scaled Branches

A

Indicate amount of time involved in evolution

101
Q

Phylogram

A

Phylogenic tree with scaled branches

102
Q

Cladograms

A

Phylogenic trees without scaled branches; showiung relationship, but not time between groups

103
Q

Root

A

The original species, that others evolved from

104
Q

Node

A

Splitting point, where on species turns to two

105
Q

Branch

A

An ‘edge’ between nodes

106
Q

Leaf

A

End node, where the species is shown

107
Q

Sister Texta

A

Two closely related species

108
Q

Homoplasy

A

Feature found in two, unrelated species, having evolved independantly, due to the same selection pressures

109
Q

Polyphly

A

Group of simialr organisms without common ancestor

110
Q

Convergent Evolution

A

Wombats and Groundhogs share many similar features, but are not closely related at all
Because they occupy a similar niche, natural selection has favoured similar adaptations

111
Q

Adaptive Potential

A

ability to overcome a threat

112
Q

Antigenic Drift

A

Minor genetic changes over time in an antigen
- this makes curing disease hard, as disease may change over time

113
Q

Analogous Structure

A

features of different species that are similar in function but not necessarily in structure
- do not derive from a common ancestral feature

114
Q

6 Types of Fossils

A
  • Mould Fossil
  • Cast Fossil
  • Petrified Fossil
  • Carbon Film
  • Trace Fossil
  • Preserved Remains
115
Q

Clade

A

a group of organisms believed to comprise all the evolutionary descendants of a common ancestor.

Biology 3 4 (9 decks)

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