Necessary Revision Flashcards
TRP Operon
Protein Synthesis is costly
- Genes can be shut off to conserve energy
- Save ATP
Deficit of Tryptophan
- Insufficient quantity of trp to bind to repressor
- Causes repressor protein to detatch from Operator region
- Allows RNA polymerase to transcribe trp structural genes to code for tryptophan
Surplus of Tryptophan
- Trp binds to repressor, changing its shape
- Repressor binds to Operator
- Prevents RNA Polymerase from running across
- Transcription is blocked
C3 Plants
- ‘normal plants’
- go through ‘normal photosynthesis’
- No adaptations to reduce Photorespiration
- C3 - calvin cycle initially producecs 3 carbons
C4 Plants
- Warm and tropic plants
- Modified Photosynthesis as adaptation to environment
- C4 - calvin cycle initially produces 4 carbons
- Uses more ATP
Eg. - Corn
- Sugarcane
- Weeds
CAM Plants
- Hot and arid environment
- Crassulacean Acid Metabolism
- Adaptation to Decreased Photorespiration
eg. - Cacti
Light Dependant Phase Inputs and Outputs
Inputs:
- H20
- NADP+
- ADP + Pi
Outputs
- O2
- NADPH
- ATP
Light Independant Phase Inputs and Outputs
Inputs:
- CO2
- NADPH
- ATP
Outputs:
- C6H12O6
- H2O
- NADP+
- ADP + Pi
C4 Light Independant Phase
- Initial carbon fixation occurs in mesophyll cells
- Remaining Calvin Cycle occurs in Bundle Sheath Cells
CAM Light Independant Phase
- CAM plants open stomata at night to bring in CO2 without losing water
- Can still photosynthesize during the day, as malate molecule is transported out of the vacuole and broken down to release CO2
C3 Light Independant Phase
- Carbon dioxide ‘fixed’ to produce glucose, using H+ ions and electrons carries by NADPH from light dependant
- Energy carries by NADPH and ATP used to drive reaction
Light Dependant Phase
- Chlorophyll traps light energy
- Water split to produce O2, H+ ions and excited electrons
- NADP+ picks up H+ ions and electrons to become NADPH
- ATP synthase converts ADP+Pi to ATP
Light Dependant Phase Location
Thylakoid Membrane
Light Independant Phase Location
Stroma
Ribosomes
Responsible for Protein Synthesis
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Responsible for Folding and Transporting proteins
Transport Vesicle
Responsible for Transporting proteins
Golgi Apparatus
Responsible for Modifying and Packaging Proteins
Secretory Vesicle
Responsible for Transporting proteins
Glycolysis Location
Cytosol
Glycolysis
- Net gain of 2 ATP
- Each glucose molecule broken down to become 2 pyruvate
- 2 Loaded carriers (NADP+) also produced
Krebs Cycle Location
Mitochondrial Matrix
Krebs Cycle
- Net gain of 2 ATP
- All carbon and oxygen from pyruvate is released as CO2
- This creates more high energy coenzyme: 2ATP, 8NADH and 2FADH2
Electron Transport Chain Location
Cristae of Mitochondria
Electron Transport Chain
- Net gain of 26-28 ATP
- H+ ions diffuse back into matrix thorough ATP synthase, which rotates, creating ATP
Oxygen accepts H+ ions, forming water
Aerobic Respiration Equation
Glucose + Oxygen -> Carbon Dioxide + Water
Anaerobic Respiraiton Equation
Glucose -> Lactic Acid
Anaerobic Respiration in Mammals
- When demand for energy outstrips ability to recieve oxygen
- For every molecule of glucose broken down, net gain of 2 ATP
Glucose -> Pyruvate -> Lactic Acid + ATP
Anaerobic Respiration in Yeast
- Net gain of 2 ATP for every molecule broken down
Glucose -> Pyruvate -> Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide + ATP
Types of Phagocytes
- Dendritic Cells
- Macrophages
- Neutrophils
Dendritic Cells
- Messenger between innate and active immune system
- Engulf Pathogens
Macrophages
- Engulf bacteria
- Signal other phagocytes with cytokines
Neutrophils
- Main producer of Pus
- Engulf Bacteria
Phagocytes
- Produced in Bone marrow
- White blood cells, specialisd in finding and ingesting pathogens
- Release cytokines, signalling other molecules
Natural Killer Cells
- Lymphocytes that kill viruses - infected body cells
- Release toxic granules to kill cells
- Cytotoxic: Cell killing
Mast Cells
- Cause vasodilation
- Secrete histamines when activated
- Histamines - increase permeability and blood flow
Eosiniphils
- Granulocytes
- Assist against larger parasites - too large for phagocytosis
- Contains toxic granules
Second Line of Defence - Cellular
- Phagocytes
- Natural Killer Cells
- Mast Cells
- Eosiniphils
Second Line of Defence - Non Cellular
- Complement Proteins
- Cytokines
- Inflammation
- Fever
Fever
- Aims to denature pathogens
- Elevate body temp
- Increased rate of photosynthesis
- Speed up cellular repair
Inflammation
- Mast cells vasodilate blood
- Increased blood flow carries phagocytes
- Followed by discharge of pus
Cytokines
- Signalling molecules, coordinate immune response
- Small proteins released in response to presence of pathogens
Complement Proteins
- ‘complement’ antibodies and phagocytes to clear pathogens
- Made in liver
- Circulate blood inactively
- Facilitate phagocytosis
B Cells
- B Cells found outside of the cell
- Lymphocyte, playing central role in humoral immunity
- White blood cells from bone marrow
- Mature in bone marrow before moving to secondary lymphoid organs
- found in spleen, tonsils and lymph nodes
- Once activated, B Cells become plasma cells, producing antibodies and B Memory Cells
T Cells
- T Cells found within the cell
- White blood ceclls from bone marrow, mature in thymus gland
- In thymus, T Cells multiply into helper and cytotoxic T cells
- Once matured, circulate in blood or lymphatic system
- Helper T Cells aid in activation of cytotoxic T Cells
Cell Mediated Response
Antigen Presenting Cells concurrenlty initiate selection of T Helper and Naive T Cells
Naive T Cells stimulated by cytokines (from Th) and undergo clonal expansion and differentiation
Clones differentiate into either Cytotoxic T Cells or Memory T Cells
Upon contact with infected cell, T Cell binds to antigen MHC I complex
This induces secretion of cytotoxic chemicals to induce Apoptosis
Humoral Response
Differentiation of the selected B cell occurs resulting in B memory (BM) and plasma cells
Plasma Cells produce large numbers of antibodies specific to the pathogen that initiated the response
B Memory cells are a form of immunological memory
A TH that has been selected with the same antigen is activated and secretes cytokines
A pathogen interacts with a B cell
Agglutination
Antibodies can bind together with antigens on 2 seperate pathogens
Makes it easier for Phagocytes to recognise pathogens and destroy them
Opsonisation
Antibodies stick on the outside surface of pathogens and make it easier for cells of the immune system, such as phagocytes, to recognise them as foreign
Neutralisation
Antibodies binding to pathogen to inhibit toxic effects
Imobilisation
Antibodies can restrict movement of Pathogens around the body through formation of large antigen antibody complexes
Complement Activation
Antibodies bind to cancer cell and interact with complement proteins
Compliment proteins can then go on to destroy cancerous cell either through MAC, or enhancing the function of other immune cells
Hominin vs Hominoid
Hominoid had pronounced jaw, decreased cranial capacity or less central foramen magnum
Artificial Immunity
Artificial is acquired from medical technology to purposely give immunity
Natural Immunity
Results from unintentional exposure to antigen by interaction with other biological entities
Active Immunity
When a persons own immune system produces their antibodies
Passive Immunity
When someone has antibodies produced by someone else’s immune system
