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Cognitive > Reasoning > Flashcards

Reasoning Flashcards

1
Q

What situation is NOT likely to promote heuristic reasoning?

A

too much time to decide.

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2
Q

What situations are likely to promote heuristic reasoning?

A
  • too little/too much info= may not be able to process it

- too little time

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3
Q

One heuristic is, when unsure, to do do what you did last time. To be successful what does thus heuristic require?

A

That past outcomes are predictive of future actions

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4
Q

Most people guess that there are more English words beginning with K than with K as the third letter. What heuristic is this an example of?

A

Availability

- It’s easier to imagine words beginning with K than K as the third letter

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5
Q

You believe football is the best sport. What would be an example of a confirmation bias?

A

Asking people who like football which other sports they play

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6
Q

Metacognition is?

A

Judgements about other aspects of cognition

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7
Q

Metacognition doesn’t affect judgements about other peoples cognition. True or false?

A

False

Metacognition can affect judgements about peoples cognition

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8
Q

Metacognition can affect judgements about risks and costs. True or false.

A

True

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9
Q

How might two people discussing their opposing beliefs correct for metacognitive errors?

A

It might drive them to explain their beliefs and so dispel an illusion of explanatory depth

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10
Q

The Dunning-Kruger phenomenon suggests that..

A

Those who are below average lack the ability to estimate their true ability

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11
Q

Is the use of heuristics irrational? Explain with example or examples

A
  • Rationality= doesn’t have a clear definition
  • Using heuristics is rational as there is no alternative
  • Need them as the perfect decision doesn’t exist
  • Need not just to solve problems but get around the limitations as cognitive beings
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12
Q

Why is metacognitive ability important?

A

Metacognition allows us to realise when we are wrong, adjust and correct our beliefs, and know how much confidence to invest in our decisions

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13
Q

What is a heuristic?

A

strategies,rules of thumb

- principle with broad application that is not intended to be strictly accurate or reliable for every situation

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14
Q

Why do heuristics exist?

A

because the perfect decision does not exist

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15
Q

Why is the perfect decision not possible ?

A
  • information is limited = doesn’t matter how much you have is always limited
  • information is ambigious = imperfect information
  • time for decisions is limited
  • cognitive resources are limited
    = not just to solve a practical problem, but to get around the limitations as cognitive beings
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16
Q

What are good design features of a good heuristic?

A
  • efficient
  • quick
  • robust= means it usually works
  • mostly right= net overall benefit= overall come out ontop
17
Q

why do we use heuristics?

A

because we are adaptive= able to survive and thrive = can make mistakes but on average get a good

18
Q

What is the link between heuristics and biases?

A

Biases are systematic errors produced by heuristics, heuristics used can be inferred from biases measured
- heuristics produce semantic errors= biases
= because if you adopt a shortcut when making a choice- which you have to- you will get systematic errors – not just random errors, will be patterns in the errors you make
THEREFORE: by observing systematic errors= understand the strategies people are using to make choices

19
Q

why are biases not mere errors?

A
  • just like visual illusions reveal the normal mechanisms of perception…
  • heuristic errors reveal the normal mechanisms of reasoning
  • not motivational biases (e.g. ego-protecting biases)
  • can affect experts and laypeople alike
20
Q

What are the 3 heuristics responsible for a range of biases and errors?

A

1) representativness
2) availability
3) adjustment and anchoring

21
Q

What is the representativness heuristic ?

A

= to evaluate the probability of a single event according to how similar it is to what we imagine that event typically looks like

e. g. Linda example- feminist and banker or just banker - don’t think of the laws of probability- as description makes her sound like a feminists
- or deadly disease example = need base rate = Need to convert the frequencies into actual numbers

22
Q

What is the availability heuristic ?

A

= probabilities are assessed by the ease with which instances come to mind = memory or imagination
= aircrashes = try to estimate prop of crashes - people nervous about flying = actually flying= safest mode of transport

23
Q

What is the adjustment and anchoring heuristic ?

A

= When unclear how to calculate a probability or figure, people will begin with an initial estimate- which may be influenced by irrelevant information - then they will insufficiently adjust
= anchoring is starting point - then adjust
e.g. 1x2x3 etc
or 9x8x7 etc
= 2nd estimate higher no
= irrelevant anchor for 2nd
- people are influenced by irrelevant info e.g. phone number influence knowledge of history

24
Q

Are we rational creatures?

A

if we are smart/dumb/rational creatures depends on what we mean by rational
- we arent always right but we have strategies that help us make choices to give us a good enough answer
= being adaptive
= in evolutionary terms, able to survive and thrive - as can make mistakes but on average get a good enough answer

25
Q

Do heuristics exploit environmental structure? If yes/no why?

A
  • can take shortcuts because of the way the environment is organised
  • If something is consistently associated with a good option, you can use it as a shortcut
    e. g. take advice from someone who is usually right, pick the special in a restaurant
  • this means that even if a heuristic gives wrong answer, it may exist for a good reason (even if that reason no longer applies)
26
Q

What is the 4th heuristic ?

A

FRAMING
(susceptibility )
= options presented as either gains or losses = way that they are framed
= Tversky and Kahneman 81 disease choice
= when presented as a loss- people more likely to take a risk and gamble

27
Q

What is prospect theory?

A

mathematical description between the actual outcomes in any objectively via metric (e.g. money) you choose and the subjective value
= maps objective outcome, to subjective value
Losses> gains = losses go down further than the gains go up e.g. would dislike loosing 10pounds more than you would like gaining 10pounds

28
Q

How does bias affect our reasoning about the world?

A
  • we make an important decision as to what info you acquire about the world
  • if you change what you seek= changes what you think
  • so bias affects our reasoning about the world THUS AFFECTS OUR BELIEFS
  • it matters how we acquire and accept/reject info
29
Q

What is confirmation bias?

A

= a preference to actively seek information that already confirms your existing beliefs- rather than contradict it
= neglect to seek information to prove you wrong
- Not whether you believe information when you encounter it, its about the active search for information

30
Q

What is Watsons selection task?

A

= E X 1 6
rule about which card you have to turn over to decide whether this statement is true or false
- One way to help= if you make it less abstract, e.g.present it in an everyday situation- something will understand
- When you explain the reasoning behind the right answer- people believe you= not an illusion

31
Q

What doeds the Watson selection task tell us?

A

That most errors are 2 errors
1) making the wrong choice = error about the answer
2) thinking you’ve made the right choice
= commit to the wrong answer = error about thinking about the answer
=metacognitive error

32
Q

What is metacognition ?

A
  • Thinking about thinking
33
Q

What are metacognitive judgements ?

A

Perceptions of your own mental state
- Two types:
1) confidence
= i’m sure i’m right vs i’m mostly guessing
2) awareness
=i don’t know why i think that or i trust him because etc…
= possible to know things without knowing how you know them

34
Q

What is the mere exposure effect ?

A

= common metacognitive error
-People show a preference to stimuli that they have merely experienced before
e.g. begin to like a person just because they are there a lot= don’t need rewards or positive interactions it’s just familiarity
= stimuli seen before = preferred

35
Q

what supports the mere exposure effect?

A

Staffords logo recognition results

36
Q

What is mental contamination?

A

= metacognitive error
= interested in the same thing as mere exposure task- contamination of judgment from info that should be irrelevant = in this case internal information that should be irrelevant
= Capilano suspension bridge = marten van horenbeeck
FOUND- people on swaying bridge were twice as likely to phone her up
= EXPLANATION =
= we have to make a judgement – get off bridge – how attracted are they to her? How do they make that judgement , don’t know anything about them so have to rely partly on internal report
- Because on inducing bridge = heart races, palms sweat, cant think straight, so listen to pounding of heart- misattribute that to the person- thinking you find them more attractive

37
Q

What is the illusion of explanatory depth?

A

= metacognitive error
Rozenblit, keil 02
- We over estimate our true understanding because we judge how well we understand something because we base it on our familiarity of it rather than actual ability to explain how it works
FOUND: peoples initial rating of their understanding was well above their rating of understanding when confronted with the correct answer, people thought they understood when they did not & when presented w truth realise didn’t understand
- any situation where you are familiar with material but do not test yourself – you are liable to be overestimating your ability

38
Q

What is the Dunning-Kruger effect ?

A

= metacognitive error
= explains are two types of metacogntive errors
= idea that people who are least skilled in a domain have a double deficit = not able to perform well = low skill- and not able to judge their own skill (the metacognitive error)
- For top performers- their judgements are pretty accurate
- People who were worst thought they were nearly as good as the people who are the best
- = unskilled and unaware of it= the metacognitive error

39
Q

What is the link between heuristics and metacognition?

A

Metacognitive errors can result from basing judgment on wrong information

  • Mere exposure effect: preference based on fluency
  • IoED: understanding judged on familiarity
  • We use heuristics to understand ourselves, as well as the world
  • Metacognitive errors can result from heuristics

Cognitive (9 decks)

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