Reading #1

Question 1

Why would a majority of medieval Europe think that there was no need for science? (i.e. why did scientific progress stagnate)

Answer 1

Widespread belief in timeless spiritual values, no “progress” if all beliefs are unquestioned. Any question could be answered by religious teachings and theology.

Question 2

What effect did the Muslim conquest of Spain have on later scientific understanding?

Answer 2

Spain held large repositories of scientific knowledge from Muslim culture but also the ancient world (written in Arabic). These works were later translated and used by European scientists.

Question 3

What basic premise of science (inherited from ancient philosophers) was accepted by medieval thinkers?

Answer 3

Causation. The idea that every effect is the product of a preceding cause (inherited from Aristotle).

Question 4

What did Thomas Aquinas try to prove using the idea of causation? Why was this a bad idea?

Answer 4

The existence of God. Tried to combine theology with science, two forces which at the time were ideologically opposed.

Question 5

What are 2 examples of medieval scientific invention?

Answer 5

1. the wheelbarrow
2. the mechanical clock

(also the horseshoe and the horse collar)

Question 6

Who was considered to be one of the first great European figures in alchemy?

Answer 6

Albertus Magnus, a priest. He was later canonized by the Roman Catholic church, becoming the patron saint of scientists.

Question 7

What makes alchemy more noteworthy than the other sciences during the medieval period?

Answer 7

It was the only real science of matter during the period, the only intellectual pursuit still trying to answer questions about the world.

Question 8

How are Thomas Aquinas and Albertus Magnus connected?

Answer 8

Thomas Aquinas is reputed to have walked from Southern Italy to Paris just to become the pupil of Albertus Magnus.

Question 9

In which scientific fields was Albertus Magnus involved?

Answer 9

Philosophy, chemistry, biology, as well as alchemy.

Question 10

Which element is Albertus Magnus noted for being the first to isolate?

Answer 10

Arsenic.

Question 11

What idea of change did Albertus Magnus propose that was not previously attributed to Aristotle?

Answer 11

Chemical change as being distinct from Aristotelian ideas such as projectile motion, ageing, seasons, etc.

Question 12

What major work did Roger Bacon write, which wasn’t published until long after his death?

Answer 12

His “Opus Majus”, written in Latin and containing knowledge from many fields of natural science.

Question 13

What ideas did Roger Bacon have (some of which were later mirrored by Leonardo da Vinci)?

Answer 13

Mechanisms - such as submarines, steamships, and airplanes - as well as evidence suggesting the independent invention of gunpowder in Europe and even speculation that people might one day circumnavigate the globe.

Question 14

What significant view did Roger Bacon maintain regarding experimentation?

Answer 14

Stressed that experimentation and the application of mathematics was key to scientific progress and discovery.

Question 15

Who was Nicolas Flamel? Who else is reported to have shared this success?

Answer 15

A French alchemist who claims, in his writings, to have succeeded in transmuting mercury to gold. This was also thought to have been achieved by Raimondo Lul (Raymond Lully), who used the gold to pay off King Edward II of England’s debts.

Question 16

According to medieval philosophers, how did Aristotelian theory take place in minerals?

Answer 16

All minerals sought to become gold. First stones turned to rock, then rock became metals, gradually advancing towards perfection.

Question 17

What category of solution was discovered by the medieval alchemists that is still widely used today? What was the first highly reactive example of this? Who made this breakthrough?

Answer 17

They were the first to understand acids (other than the weak vinegar known to ancient people). The first breakthrough came when ‘false Geber’ created vitriol, better known as sulphuric acid.

Question 18

What important role did sulphuric acid play in industry?

Answer 18

Even up to the mid 20th century, the volume of sulphuric acid consumed by a country’s industry each year was used as a measure of that country’s development.

Question 19

What 2 acids did ‘false Geber’ discover that allowed a whole new range of alchemical experimentation?

Answer 19

Sulphuric acid (vitriol) and nitric acid (aqua fortis).

Question 20

What kinds of experiments did the discovery of strong acids allow?

Answer 20

Forming and dissolution of compounds, transformation of compounds, isolation of elements, salt formation and precipitation experiments, etc.

Question 21

What did Roger Bacon believe regarding alchemy?

Answer 21

That it was possible to transmute base metals into gold, and that an elixir was required to catalyze this transformation.

Question 22

What did the philosophy of Aristotelian thinkers stipulate about the natural world? How did this relate to Alchemy?

Answer 22

All things strive towards perfection. Flesh aspires to embody the spirit just as all metals strive to become gold.

Question 23

What human factor made alchemical ideas difficult for the average person to understand?

Answer 23

Alchemists were often very secretive and cryptic in the description of their work.

Question 24

What other example of a pseudo-science is given in the text and compared to alchemy as being something that gave rise to a modern scientific field?

Answer 24

Astrology is mentioned as leading to the study of behaviour and personality, the basis of modern psychology.

Question 25

What historical event led to the quest for the “philosopher’s Stone”?

Answer 25

The pillaging of Constantinople resulted in the loss of much ancient alchemical knowledge. Instead of deciphering ancient texts as before, alchemy entered a new age of experimentation and discovery.

Question 26

How did the search for the Philosopher’s Stone expand our knowledge of chemistry?

Answer 26

To prove that it didn’t exist, alchemists had to study matter to an extent that it hadn’t been before, making many new discoveries in chemistry along the way.

Question 27

What made it difficult to identify the people behind recorded alchemical research? Who was an exception to this?

Answer 27

In published works, the findings were either falsely attributed to a historical figure or no one at all. Notably, some important works were produced by an alchemist calling himself ‘Geber’ after the Arabic alchemist Jabir.

Question 28

Besides the Philosopher’s Stone, what other fabled item did the medieval alchemists try to create?

Answer 28

The elixir of life, a compound which can make someone immortal.

Question 29

What differentiated an elixir that was used in medicine from an elixir which would transmute matter into another form?

Answer 29

Nothing for the most part (which seems pretty dangerous). The reading gives an example of a solution which is meant to purge the stomach and also purify lead down to its base element at 400°C.

Question 30

How did medieval alchemists begin the widespread practice of pharmacy in Europe?

Answer 30

Alchemists needed to make some cash on the side since gold wasn’t working out, so they started producing elixirs that were supposed to cure people of various ailments.

Question 31

What is considered by the reading to be the MOST IMPORTANT ELIXIR OF ALL TIME???

Answer 31

Alcohol, obviously. Also known as “aqua vitae” (water of life), it was originally produced by distilling wine.

Question 32

What famous alchemist was the first to purify alcohol? What else did he discover?

Answer 32

Arnold of Villanova, from Spain. Also the first to observe the effects of carbon monoxide in a poorly ventilated room.

Question 33

Besides purifying alcohol, what else is Arnold of Villanova known for?

Answer 33

Considered to be the best physician of his time, partly because he could read Arabic and therefore the original pharmacopeia text rather than its lesser translation. Personally attended to major royal and religious figures in Southern Europe.

Question 34

Besides for drinking, what other uses could alcohol be put to?

Answer 34

Used as a solvent, as well as a disinfectant in medicine. It also has preservative qualities.

Question 35

Who banned alchemy in 1317 (not for the first time)? Why?

Answer 35

Pope John XXII. Opinions vary, some say he was mad that his own attempts to produce gold hadn’t worked out while others say he wanted to monopolize the field.

Question 36

After the 1317 ban on alchemy, what is Thomas Aquinus reputed to have produced? How has this influenced modern chemistry?

Answer 36

He wrote a book called the Thesaurus Alchemiae, among other writings. Terms which he used in these alchemical texts are still used in chemistry today (ex: amalgam).

Question 37

Who is thought to have written The Emerald Tablet? Where did it likely originate?

Answer 37

The mysterious Hermes Trismegistos. Probably from Alexandria in the 1st century.

Question 38

How did The Emerald Tablet arrive in Europe?

Answer 38

Thought to have been brought West by Greek scholars fleeing the fall of the Byzantine Empire and the looting of Constantinople.

Question 39

What view of science is contained within The Emerald Tablet? Where did these views take hold?

Answer 39

Man is also a creator, like God. Through technological innovation and experimentation, humanity could impose their will upon the world. Only resonated within Europe, and may have been what allowed Europe to surpass the rest of the world in scientific fields.

Question 40

In The Emerald Tablet, what relates the elements, the planets, and the calendar?

Answer 40

The original 7 elements are related to the 7 planets, which in turn control the 7 days of the week.

Question 41

In The Emerald Tablet, how is gold related to the days of the week? What about silver?

Answer 41

Gold is related to the sun = Sunday

Silver is related to the moon = Monday

Question 42

When Copernicus announced that the planets orbit the sun, how did the Platonic ideas in The Emerald Tablet influence his conclusions?

Answer 42

Thought that the planets could only obey ‘real’ geometry (Plato’s idea) as specified in The Emerald Tablet, and so must orbit the sun in perfect circles (actually elliptical).