Random from quizzes Flashcards
What is tidal volume?
Tidal volume (symbol VT or TV) is the lung volume representing the normal volume of air displaced between normal inhalation and exhalation when extra effort is not applied.
what is the role of Ca2+ in Excitability-contraction coupling
Ca2+ binding to troponin complex causing disassociation from tropomyosin
Why does hyperventilation help hold breath for longer
Decrease pCO2 to decrease respiratory drive
Frank starling law describes the relationship between?
Ventricular filling and stroke volume
rapid palpitation flutter in chest dizzyness SOB BP of 80/60. what type of shock is this?
Cardiogenic
purpose of albumin?
Main determinant of oncotic pressure, transports hydrophobic molecules
what antibody appears first on first viral infection.
IgM antibody appears first
what is a stress test specifically trying to confirm?
both diagnosis and ecg report.
Check for ST elevation or depression in response to exercise. (elevation vs depression is degree and location of issue)
What does GTN do to cause effect?
When sprayed under the tongue, it relaxes and widens blood vessels in the heart and in the rest of the body.
Decreased preload leading to decreased cardiac work
You are a third year medical student shadowing a surgeon on placement. You arrive at the hospital after the first patient who is to undergo surgery is already anaesthetised. Which of the following is the most correct?
You can watch the operation and read the notes if the doctor received permission from the patient prior to the operation
what is emphysema
a condition in which the air sacs of the lungs are damaged and enlarged, causing breathlessness.
XRAY- Hyperlucency, flattened hemidiaphragms and long narrow cardiac shadow
what does PICO stand for and what is it used for.
Patient, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome
Defining a clinical question in terms of the specific patient problem aids the searcher in finding clinically relevant evidence in the literature. The PICO Model is a format to help define your question.
what is a missense mutation?
mutation causing a single codon change to give a different amino acid
what is a nonsense mutation?
mutation making a premature stop codon
poor left ventricular contractility. Presence of which heart sound would have supported this diagnosis?
3rd heart sound
what are the causes for s4 heart sounds
The fourth heart sound (S4), also known as the “atrial gallop,” occurs just before S1 when the atria contract to force blood into the left ventricle. … CLINICAL PEARL: A S4 heart sound is often a sign of diastolic heart failure, and it is rarely a normal finding (unlike a S3).
What antibody would protect your upper airways from virus
IgA Immunoglobulin A is an antibody that plays a crucial role in the immune function of mucous membranes.
what is an example of a molecule made from catabolism in humans
glycerol
What does inflammation cause immediately at the area?
Leukocytes to become sticky to the capillary epithelium
What is FEV1 and its clinical ranges
forced expiratory volume over 1 second
mild 80%
moderate 50%–79%
severe 30%–49%
very severe Less than 30%
what is FVC and its clinical ranges
is the total amount of air exhaled during the FEV test.
what is FEV1/FVC used for?
in obstructive disease the ratio is reduced (less than 0)
in restrictive it is usually unchanged as both measures are decreased evenly.
what is an s3 heart sound
Clinical Significance: Results from increased atrial pressure leading to increased flow rates, as seen in congestive heart failure, which is the most common cause of a S3. Associated dilated cardiomyopathy with dilated ventricles also contribute to the sound.
where are the locations of the lung lobes?
for both left and right
right middle lobe. Anterior surface, 4th-7th rib
what is afterload vs preload?
Preload is the initial stretching of the cardiac myocytes (muscle cells) prior to contraction. It is related to ventricular filling.
Afterload is the force or load against which the heart has to contract to eject the blood.
what are the causes for s4 heart sounds
The fourth heart sound (S4), also known as the “atrial gallop,” occurs just before S1 when the atria contract to force blood into the left ventricle. … CLINICAL PEARL: A S4 heart sound is often a sign of diastolic heart failure
This sound is usually associated with a stiffened ventricle (low ventricular compliance), and therefore is heard in patients with ventricular hypertrophy, myocardial ischemia, or in older adults.
carcinoma vs sarcoma?
Carcinoma - a cancer arising in the epithelial tissue of the skin or of the lining of the internal organs.
Sarcoma - a malignant tumour of connective or other non-epithelial tissue.
what is aneuploidy
surplus or deficit in one chromosome pair
what is an s3 heart sound
Clinical Significance: Results from increased atrial pressure leading to increased flow rates, as seen in congestive heart failure, which is the most common cause of a S3. Associated dilated cardiomyopathy with dilated ventricles also contribute to the sound. can also be with poor contractility in the ventricles
what is an example of co-dominance?
Equal and independent expression of 2 alleles
for virus infection what antibodies are used in the blood vs mucosal surfaces
IgA on mucosal surfaces
IgG in the serum
What is transport requiring energy from a different ion gradient
Secondary active trasport.
What is the most abundant energy reserve molecule in the average human body?
triacylglycerol
what is diaphoresis
sweating
Which Second Messenger do Beta-Adrenergic Receptor Antagonists affect?
cAMP
what is a teratoma
cancer of the germ cell.
what is hyperlucency
the radiographic finding that a lung or portion thereof is less dense than normal, as from air trapping by a bronchial foreign body, asymmetric emphysema, or decreasing blood flow.
more seethrough so extra black.
What are the weeks for zygote vs embryo vs foetus?
zygote - spans week 1-3
embryo starts week 3-5 ends week 8
foetus - week 8 - birth
what is the function of the spleen in immunity
Antibody production.
what is the fastest compensatory mechanism for haemorrhage?
Baroreflex
In acute inferior MI, ST segment elevation is seen in which EKG leads?
II, III and aVF
what do Kerley b lines on an xray indicate?
Interlobular oedema
what is hyperlucency
the radiographic finding that a lung or portion thereof is less dense than normal, as from air trapping by a bronchial foreign body, asymmetric emphysema, or decreasing blood flow.
more see through so extra black.
what is the immunological function of the thymus
Maturation of naïve T cells and T cell selection
As you are listening to the chest of Charles Green, a 55-year-old man who presented with breathlessness, you hear a low-pitched sound after S2. What is the most likely cause of this sound?
Blood striking an overly compliant left ventricle
what are the purines
adenine and guanine
what are the pyrimidines?
cytosine and thymine. (in RNA thymine is replaced by uracil.)
what is dysplasia?
abnormal cells in the area
what is hyperplasia?
more cells of the same type
what is third degree heart block?
AV block- atrial signal doesn’t go to ventricles.
What is Va/q ratio?
ventilation/perfusion
what is Atelectasis?
Atelectasis is the collapse or closure of a lung resulting in reduced or absent gas exchange.
what is Nuchal translucency
form of ultrasound scan
what kind of hormone is insulin
peptide - relies on extracellular receptors.
what vertebrae does the trachea bifurcate
t4-5 normally 5 (also known as the carina)
what is a Randomised control study?
A randomized controlled trial (or randomized control trial;[2] RCT) is a type of scientific (often medical) experiment that aims to reduce certain sources of bias when testing the effectiveness of new treatments; this is accomplished by randomly allocating subjects to two or more groups, treating them differently, and then comparing them with respect to a measured response.
what is a retrospective cohort study?
In contrast, retrospective studies are conceived after some people have already developed the outcomes of interest. The investigators jump back in time to identify a cohort of individuals at a point in time before they have developed the outcomes of interest, and they try to establish their exposure status at that point in time.
what is a case control study?
Case control studies are observational because no intervention is attempted and no attempt is made to alter the course of the disease. The goal is to retrospectively determine the exposure to the risk factor of interest from each of the two groups of individuals: cases and controls. These studies are designed to estimate odds.
what causes the second heart sound
closure of semilunar valves (pulmonary and aortic)
what is the difference of SaO2 reading for anaemic people and cyanosis?
They will have a lower SaO2 before appearing cyanosed.
what muscles have intercalated discs?
cardiac.
Which pathway contributes reducing equivalents (NADH + H+ and FADH2) to the electron transport chain that drive oxidative phosphorylation reactions to produce cellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP)?
B oxidation.
What cells will release leukotrienes?
mast cells.
He is given salbutamol, a beta 2 adrenoreceptor agonist, which results in rapid relaxation of his bronchial smooth muscle.
What is the mechanism by which this occurs?
Increased production of intracellular cyclic amp
What is A-a gradient?
A normal A-a gradient means that the lung parenchyma and integrity of the diffusion membrane is normal. If a patient has hypoxia with a normal A-a gradient, then the problem is “outside” the lungs—such as high altitude or just not breathing enough because of opiates, muscle weakness, etc.
what is the role of Atropine?
interrupting the vasovagal response?
What is a severe FEV1
FEV1 between 30 and 50% predicted is “severe”.
What is A-a gradient?
A measure of the difference between the alveolar concentration (A) of oxygen and the arterial (a) concentration of oxygen.
A normal A-a gradient means that the lung parenchyma and integrity of the diffusion membrane is normal. If a patient has hypoxia with a normal A-a gradient, then the problem is “outside” the lungs—such as high altitude or just not breathing enough because of opiates, muscle weakness, etc.
what antibody is on primed mast cells
Mast cells are coated with IgE, ready for the next encounter with the antigen. Histamine and proteases are contained in mast cell granules, but not on the surface of the cell.
what is a type 1 immune response
Type 1 responses are generally thought of as “cell-mediated” immunity—that is the Th1 cells secrete cytokines that promote macrophage activation and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte proliferation. This type of response is critical to clearing intracellular pathogens. It does also involve some antibody production, but that is not the key feature.
what is a left shift in a FBC ?
increase in immature leukocytes. eg bands.
easy check for axis for RAD (positive)
If the QRS is predominantly negative in lead I and positive in lead aVF, then the axis is rightward (right axis deviation). The causes of RAD are listed below.
easy check for axis for LAD (negative)
Both lead: Lead 1- positive lead aVF-negative means between 0 and - 90 degrees Then if Lead 2 = negative (means LAD) And if Lead 2 = positive (means normal)
easy check for axis for RAD (positive)
lead I negative
lead aVF positive
= RAD
what is a prospective cohort study?
After baseline information is collected, subjects in a prospective cohort study are then followed “longitudinally,” i.e. over a period of time, usually for years, to determine if and when they become diseased and whether their exposure status changes. In this way, investigators can eventually use the data to answer many questions about the associations between “risk factors” and disease outcomes. For example, one could identify smokers and non-smokers at baseline and compare their subsequent incidence of developing heart disease. Alternatively, one could group subjects based on their body mass index (BMI) and compare their risk of developing heart disease or cancer.
