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A&P > Quiz 8 > Flashcards

Quiz 8 Flashcards

1
Q

Endocrine vs. exocrine

A

endocrine- secrete hormones directly into ECF (pituitary, adrenal, etc)
exocrine- products discharged through ducts (salivary, sweat)

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2
Q

What are hormones?

A

chemical messengers; either proteins, pepties, amino acid derivatives, or steroids

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3
Q

paracrine vs. autocrine

A

paracrine- hormone acts on neighboring cell

autocrine- hormone acts on itself

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4
Q

Second messenger system

A

Hormone binds to receptor, activates G protein, which activates enzyme, which causes production of “second messenger”- causes reaction

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5
Q

Endocrine System characteristics

A
  • slow, prolonged
  • hormones broken down by liver, excreted in urine
  • supplies all cells with receptor
  • UNCONSCIOUS
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6
Q

Neuro System characteristics

A
  • fast
  • can “switch off”
  • supplies ONLY muscles and glands
  • hypothalamus controls ANS
  • conscious brain can control
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7
Q

Negative feedback loop

A

stops production and secretion of hormone once specific response has occured

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8
Q

What are glands stimulated by?

A
  • changing blood levels
  • stimulating hormone
  • nerve stimulus
  • gene expression
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9
Q

Adrenal cortex and its hormones

A

glomerulosa- “salts” -aldosterone
fasciculata- “sugars” - glucocorticoids
reticularis- “sex” - androgens

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10
Q

Aldosterone

A

major role in ECF Na and K concentrations and total fluid balance

  • 60% bound to plasma proteins
  • 20 minute half life
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11
Q

What stimulates aldosterone release?

A
  • HYPERKALEMIA
  • angiotensin II
  • hyponatremia
  • ACTH
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12
Q

RAAS

A

1) renin released from kidney in response to hypovolemia, SNS stim, hypotension, hyponatremia
2) renin acts on angiotensinogen to form angiotensin I
3) angiotensin I -> angiotensin II by ACE in lungs
4) angiotensin II causes vasoconstriction and release of aldosterone

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13
Q

Where does aldosterone exert effects and what does it do?

A

DCT and principal cells of collecting ducts- reabsorption of Na, secretion of K (expands ECF and elevates BP)

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14
Q

What is the major glucocorticoid?

A

cortisol/hydrocortisone

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15
Q

How much cortisol produced daily?

A

15-30 mg/day, mostly in the morning

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16
Q

Cortisol characteristics

A
  • highly protein bound
  • free cortisol is active form
  • stress/surgery increases production (100 mg/day)
  • ACTH controls secretion
  • metabolized by liver
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17
Q

Cortisol negative feedback loop

A

1) cortisol inhibits release of CRH from hypothalamus

2) cortisol decreases ACTH synthesis and release from anterior pituitary

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18
Q

Glucocorticoids effect on carb metabolism

A
  • stimulates gluconeogenesis
  • decrease glucose uptake and use by muscles
  • overall increase blood glucose concentration
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19
Q

Glucocorticoids effect on protein metabolism

A
  • decrease synthesis and increase catabolism in all body cells except liver
  • effect on skeletal muscles- weak and atrophic
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20
Q

Glucocorticoids effect on fat metabolism

A
  • FFA mobilized from adipose tissue
  • enhanced oxidation of FFA
  • enables use of FFA for energy when glucose limited
  • distinct obesity- chest, abd, intrascapular, buffalo torso, moon face)
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21
Q

Glucocorticoids effect on inflammation and immunity

A
  • diminishes inflammatory response
  • suppresses proinflammatory cytokines
  • decreases antibody production
  • decreases eosinophils and lymphocytes
  • stablizes lysosomal membranes
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22
Q

What is the primary androgen?

A

testosterone

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23
Q

Catecholamines of medulla

A
  • 80% epi
  • 20% NE
  • both metabolized in liver and kidney by COMT
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24
Q

Where are catecholamines stored and how are they released?

A

chromafin granules; released by stimulation of sympathetic nerves

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25
Q

Anterior and posterior lobes of anterior pituitary

A

anterior- adenohypophysis

posterior- neurohypophysis

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26
Q

Hormones of anterior pituitary

A

FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, prolactin, GH (FLAT PiG)

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27
Q

hormones of posterior pituitary

A

ADH, oxytocin

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28
Q

growth hormone

A

skeletal development and body growth, regulates protein and carb metabolism

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29
Q

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

A

regulates release of hormones from adrenal gland and growth of adrenal cortex

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30
Q

TSH

A

controls growth and metabolism of thyroid gland and secretion of thyroid hormones

31
Q

FSH

A

stimulates ovarian follicle development in females and spermatogenesis in males

32
Q

LH

A

induces ovulation in females, stimulates testes to produce testosterone in males

33
Q

prolactin

A

promotes mammary gland development and milk production; inhibits synthesis and secretion of LH and FSH; increased in pregnancy

34
Q

What inhibits ACTH?

A

increased cortisol levels and opioids

35
Q

What stimulates ACTH?

A

corticotropin releasing hormone, hypoglycemia, stress, trauma, sepsis, alpha adrenergic stim, decreased cortisol, circadian rhythm

36
Q

When is ACTH the highest?

A

2 hours before and just after awakening

37
Q

Growth hormone characteristics

A
  • aka somatotropin
  • release stimulated by GHRH from hypothalamus
  • inhibited by GHIF (somatostatin)
  • secretion also stimulated by stress, deep sleep, exercise, hypoglycemia
38
Q

Where are the posterior pituitary hormones synthesized?

A

hypothalamus- travel down via pituitary stalk

39
Q

oxytocin

A

stimulates milk secretion and contraction of uterus

40
Q

ADH/vasopressin

A

acts on collecting ducts to increase free water reabsorption through aquaporins (increases blood volume, urine osmo, decreases serum osmo)

41
Q

What stimulates ADH?

A

1) increase in plasma osmo (osmoreceptors in hypothalamus)
2) decrease in blood volume by >10-20% (peripheral varoreceptors and atrial stretch receptors)- afferent signal through vagus/glossopharyngeal nerves)

42
Q

Factors that influence ADH release

A

hypotension, stress, pain, PPV, hyperthermia, beta adrenergic stim, histaimes, volatile agents, smoking, nausea

43
Q

Pancreas functions

A
  • exocrine- acinar cells (synthesize digestive enzymes and bicarbonate for digestion)
  • endocrine- islets of langerhans (4 types of cells)
44
Q

Islet of Langerhans cells

A

Beta- secrete insulin and amylin
alpha- secrete glucagon
delta- secrete somatostatin
pancreatic polypeptide -inhibits exocrine pancreatic secretion

45
Q

Glycolysis

A

breakdown of glucose to pyruvate or lactate

46
Q

glycogenesis

A

storage of glucose as glycogen

47
Q

gluconeogensis

A

formation of glucose from lactate, pyruvate, aa, and glycerol

48
Q

lipogenesis

A

formation and storage of fat as triglycerides

49
Q

lipolysis

A

breakdown of stored triglycerides to FFA and glycerol

50
Q

Obligate vs. facultative tissues

A
  • obligate- can only use glucose as energy (brain, medulla, RBCs)- ketones used during starvation
  • facultative- use glucose for energy if available (can use amino acids or fats)- muscles and most other tissues
51
Q

Insulin

A
  • secreted in capillaries and portal circulation
  • 50% removed by 1st pass
  • daily secretion 60 units/delivery is 30 units
52
Q

Metabolic effects of insulin

A
  • liver and muscle- promotes storage of glycoge, inhibits gluconeogenesis
  • stimulates uptake of amino acids- promotes protein synthesis and inhibits breakdown
  • carbs are converted to FFA and glycerol- stored as triglycerides, inhibits breakdown, limits use of fats for fuel when glucose high
53
Q

Insulin effect on ion transport

A

stimulates uptake of K, Mg, and phosphate into cells

54
Q

Factors that stimulate insulin release

A

amino acids, GI hormones, PSNS stimulation, beta adrenergic stimulation, ACTH, vagal stimulation

55
Q

Factors that inhibit insulin release

A

hypoglycemia, somatostatin, glucagon, cortisol, GH, alpha adrenergic stimulation, stress

56
Q

Glucagon

A
  • biological antagonist to insulin
  • increases plasma glucose and enhances hepatic glucose output via gluconeogensis and breakdown of liver glycogen
  • blood glucose <90 stimulates release
  • works with GH, cortisol, and epi
57
Q

Somatostatin

A
  • inhibits insulin and glucagon secretion
  • decreases motility of stomach, duodenum, and gall bladder contraction
  • decreases GH release
  • decreases secretion and absorption within GI tract
  • extends time over which food and nutrients are digested and absorbed
58
Q

Type 1 diabetes

A
  • absolute insulin deficiency- dependent on exogenous insulin
  • beta cell destruction (symptoms when >80% destroyed)
  • prone to DKA
59
Q

Type 2 diabetes

A
  • impaired insulin secretion, peripheral insulin resistance, abnormal fat metabolism, excess hepatic glucose production
  • obesity
  • insidious onset
  • prone to HHS
60
Q

What connects 2 lobes of thyroid?

A

isthmus

61
Q

Follicles of thyroid

A
  • lined by epithelial cells

- produce and secrete T4 and T3

62
Q

Thyroid hormone functions

A
  • increase cellular activity
  • required for normal growth
  • growth and development of brain during fetal and postnatal
  • augment HR and contraction
  • enhance secretion of digestive juices and GI motility
  • increased hormone secretion of most endocrine glands ( especially pancreas)
63
Q

What is necessary for T4 and T3 production?

A

iodine

64
Q

Regulation of thyroid hormone secretion

A

1) TRH released from hypothalamus
2) TRH causes ant. pituitary to produce and secrete TSH
3) TSH causes increased thyroid gland activity
4) if overactivity, excessive amounts of TH produced

65
Q

Calcium regulation

A
  • 99% in bone
  • 1% in ECF
  • changes in protein may affect Ca status
  • alkalosis- increases protein binding, decrease serum iCal
66
Q

3 forms of serum calcium

A

9%- nonionized, bound to anions
41% non ionized, bound to proteins
50%- ionized and diffusible, active

67
Q

PTH

A
  • secreted from chief cells of parathyroid in response to low serum iCal, high phosphate, low mag
  • increases extracellular calcium concentration, decreases phosphate
68
Q

Direct effects of PTH

A

bone resorption (osteoclasts), increased reabsorption from DCT, phosphate excretion in PCT

69
Q

Indirect effects of PTH

A

promotes formation of vitamin D which enhances calcium and phosphate absorption from intestines

70
Q

PTH feedback loop

A

small decrease in circulating iCal produces rapid increase in PTH secretion and vice versa

71
Q

Difference b/w calcium chloride and gluconate

A

calcium chloride has higher concentration

72
Q

Vitamin D

A
  • absorbed from GI or produced enzymatically by UV light
  • inactive form converted in liver and kidney to active
  • active increases Ca, Mg, phosphate absorption
  • inadequate- rikets, osteomalacia
73
Q

Calcitonin

A
  • secreted by thyroid in response to elevated iCal
  • lowers serum calcium
  • weak effect- inhibits osteoclasts (osteoblasts more prevalent)
74
Q

Symptoms of hypocalcemia

A

hyperreflexia, muscle spasm, tetany, perioral paresthesias, laryngospasm, Chvostek (twitching of face), Trousseau’s (flexion of wrist and thumb)

A&P (11 decks)

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