Quiz 4 Flashcards
1
Q
Respiratory System
A
- Obtains oxygen from the environment and brings it to the bloodstream
- Organs are found in or derived from pharynx in most vertebrates
- Gills are the typical respiratory organs in fishes that reside on the walls of pharyngeal slits
2
Q
Development of Pharyngeal Slits
A
- Occur between the pharynx (anterior part of the archenteron) and the outside world
- Occurs through the pocketing of the endoderm and ectoderm until they meet and form a passage
3
Q
Pharyngeal Slits in Jawed Fishes
A
Consists of five slits and an optional spiracle
- Sharks have several interbranchial septa, branchial adductors and separate openings for each arch
4
Q
Pharyngeal Slits in Cyclostomes
A
- Spherical pouches rather than vertical slits, with small circular external openings
- Each pouch opens individually to the outside
- Lampreys have a horizontal separation between the “esophagus” an respiratory portion of the pharynx; can be isolated using a flap-like velum
- When just swimming around, the velum is open, but when feeding it would close otherwise the liquid food (blood) could pass out through the slits
- Hagfish have no internal distinction because they eat solid food
5
Q
Pharyngeal Slits in Teleosts
A
- Operculum is present, making a single opening instead of 5-6
- More efficient system than that in sharks because as much water as possible passes over the surface of gill lamellae
- Lamellae are densely packed and cross one another
6
Q
Respiratory System in Tetrapods
A
- Gills are lost and respiration usually occurs via lungs
- Perform the same function as gills but are not homologous
- Pharynx is smaller and functionally is less important, but still involved
- Lungs form ventrally from the pharynx, through the glottis which gives way to a series of tubes that carry air to the lungs
7
Q
Swimbladder
A
Organ in teleosts that resembles lungs
- Dorsal instead of ventral in position
- Not used for gas exchange but as a hydrostatic organ to alter buoyancy
- Retains attachment to the pharynx in most bony fishes but this is lost in advanced teleosts
- Used to be thought that the swimbladder was primitive and lungs advanced, but is more reasonably the other way around (some primitive fish have lungs)
8
Q
Lungs
A
Sacs formed from the ventral side of the pharynx
- Not very efficient: air goes in and out of the same tube, so there is always some unexpelled deoxygenated air
- More derived and active tetrapods have increased complexity and surface area
- Gas exchange at the alveolus
9
Q
Bronchi
A
Tubes that branch from the trachea and split into bronchioles
10
Q
Bronchioles
A
Tubes that branch from the bronchi and split into the alveoli
11
Q
Alveoli
A
Tubes that branch from the bronchioles
- Where gas exchange occurs
12
Q
Respiratory System of Birds
A
Very complex and efficient, more so in mammals
- Can be active at lower concentrations of oxygen than mammals
- Lung is compact but there are several continuations of the respiratory system in the form of air sacs
- Air sacs are variably distributed throughout the trunk and even in some bones
- Air enters the system, goes to the posterior air sacs, enters the lungs (where exchange occurs), and then moves to anterior air sacs before being expelled
- No alveoli
- Parabronchi: tiny tubes for air exchange
- Air is constantly moving unidirectionally so very little “wasted” air
13
Q
Birds: 2 Cycle System
A
Cycle 1
- First inhalation: air goes to posterior air sacs
- First exhalation: air moves from post. air sacs to lungs
Cycle 2
- Second inhalation: air moves from the lungs to the anterior air sacs
- Second inhalation: air moves from anterior air sacs to the trachea and out
14
Q
Cutaneous Respiration
A
Many vertebrates have the capacity for gas exchange through skin and/or internal surfaces
- Usually limited and an accessory function
- Most amphibians can conduct the majority of their gas exchange this way
- Lungless salamanders can do all gas exchange this way
- Lungs tend to be less complex in animals that do this
15
Q
Digestive System
A
System involved in obtaining nutrients from the world
- Main organs are specializations of the digestive tract or tube
16
Q
Functions of the Digestive System
A
- Transport
- Takes food from where it is obtained to where it is treated/absorbed
- Residue is removed - Mechanical Digestion
- Physical treatment of food done by action of the visceral muscles surrounding the gut
- Peristalsis: wave-like contractions
- Reduces food for chemical digestion - Chemical Digestion
- Breakdown of food into molecule components for absorption - Absorption
- Substances pass through the gut wall and into the cardiovascular or lymphatic vessels
17
Q
Gut
A
Is divided into different parts
- In humans: esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum
- In many vertebrates, the gut is divided into thirds: foregut, midgut, hindgut; but this is not applicable to all
- Almost always possible to recognize the pylorus, in which case there are two parts: foregut and hindgut
18
Q
Pylorus
A
Constriction at the beginning of the small intestine
19
Q
Foregut
A
Includes the pharynx, esophagus and stomach
- Distinction between pharynx and esophagus is mainly in gross morphology
- Takes the food to where it is treated
- Little chemical digestion; many tetrapods have enzymes in their saliva
- Simple tube with no stomach in amphioxus, cyclostomes and some fish
- Other fishes have a stomach but the esophagus is short and ill defined
- Esophagus is prominent but remains a simple tube in tetrapods; specializations in some
- Some birds have a crop
20
Q
Pharynx
A
“Throat”
- Where gill pouches occur in the embryo
- Boundary between esophagus and stomach often indistinct
21
Q
Esophagus
A
Connection to the stomach from the pharynx
- Fairly thin pipe
22
Q
Stomach
A
Large sac
- Sphincter present in higher vertebrates
23
Q
Hindgut
A
Essentially consists of the intestine
- May come in different forms
- Valvular intestine in sharks
- Subdivision of large and small typical of mammals
- Usually does most of the chemical digestion and absorption
24
Q
Small Intestine
A
Consists of the duodenum, jejunum and ileum
- Length after the first loop of the small intestine is more or less equally subdivided
- This is where most of the absorption occurs
25
Duodenum
First loop of the small intestine
26
Ileocecal Valve
The separation between the small and large intestine
27
Large Intestine/Colon
Shorter, but wider than the small intestine
- May be subdivided: ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid
- Rectum or cloaca may be present at the end
- Mainly functions in storage and water resorption
28
Cloaca
Includes the exits of other systems
29
Rectum
Exit for the digestive system only
30
Cecum
Outpocketing of the digestive tract that may be variably developed
- Typically between the small and large intestines
- Usually one in mammals, two in birds
- Some fish have it between the stomach and intestine
- Size is variable
31
Crop
Sac on the side of the esophagus for temporary food storage
32
Stomach
Arises in jawed vertebrates with the beginning of carnivory
- Has glands that produce enzymes: gastric juices used for chemical digestion
Main Functions:
- Dump for food in order to feed it to the intestine at a constant rate
- Peristaltic contractions help reduce food size
Some specializations
33
Bird Stomach
Two part stomach
- Proximally: proventriculus
- Distally: gizzard
34
Proventriculus
Glandular part of the stomach in birds
- Proximal
- Secretes gastric juices to aid in digestion
35
Gizzard
Thick, muscular portion of the stomach in birds
- Distal
- Contains grit and sometimes small pebbles that have been intentionally digested
- Grit/pebbles help grind large, harder foodstuffs
Also present in crocodilians
36
Ruminant Stomach
Four-chambered; part esophagus, part stomach
- Other mammals have complex stomachs but in a different arrangement
- Part of a fermentation system
- One or more chambers support microorganisms that carry out digestion of cellulose plant cell walls because plant material is low in energy and difficult to process
Esophagus
- Rumen
- Reticulum
- Omasum
Stomach
- Abomasum
Rumen and reticulum function as fermentation chambers; material (cud) is regurgitated and chewed again to produce finer particles. Swallowed again into the omasum and abomasum
Walls of the chamber can absorb nutrients
37
Methods of Increasing the Surface Area of the Intestine
1. Lengthen
- Longer tube = more surface area
- Mainly in teleosts and tetrapods
2. Spiral Valve
- Lengthens and slows passage
- Typical of primitive jawed fishes
- Typhlosole of lamprey may be related
3. Ceca
- Outgrowth(s) along the intestine
- Variable and common
4. Rough Surface
- Fingerlike projections of the internal lining of the intestine (villi)
- Microvilli: projections on individual cells
38
Mouth
- Begins in the embryo as an inpocketing of ectoderm (stomodeum)
- The boundary between the ectoderm and endoderm breaks down, completing the passage
- Mouth consists only of the opening
39
Oral Cavity
Posterior to the mouth, also forms from the stomodeum
| - Includes Rathke's pouch and nasal pit, both of which migrate variably in different organisms
40
Rathke's Pouch
A.K.A. Hypophyseal Pouch
- Middorsal pit in the roof of the stomodeum
- Helps form the hypophysis (pituitary gland)
41
Nasal Pit
A.K.A. Nasal placode
| - Formed from the olfactory epithelium
42
Tongue
Present within the oral cavity
- True tongue is mobile, muscular, forms from the hypobranchial musculature and its base hyoid apparatus
- Primary tongue of fishes, not muscular
- Rasping tongue of cyclostomes is not the same
Primary Use
- Manipulation of food
- Intraoral transport
- Swallowing
Other Uses (Develops)
- Obtain food (frogs, many lizards, salamanders, anteaters, etc.)
- Birds have very long tongues that loop around the head and attach to the rostrum
Taste Buds: sensory organs responsive to chemicals
43
Vomeronasal Organ
Organ in the oral cavity that is implicated both pheromone and prey detection
- Tongues may participate; i.e. tongue flicking in lizards and snakes
44
Oral Glands
Various types are present
- Most fish lack oral glands other than a few that secrete mucus
- Lampreys have a pair of large glands that secrete anticoagulant
- Oral glands are common in terrestrial vertebrates (salivary glands lubricate food)
- Mammals and some amphibians produce digestive enzymes in the mouth (amylase)
- From enzymes come POISON
45
Glands in the Pharynx
E.g. thyroid, thymus
46
Thyroid
Produces several hormones that are important in metabolism, growth, reproduction and development of the nervous system
- Begins as a midventral outgrowth of the pharynx then loses connection with it
- Formed of follicles that are scattered in the pharynx in most fishes; discrete gland in tetrapods
- Usually migrates a fair distance posteriorly, more and more in more derived organisms
47
Thymus
Part of the immune system and attacks various kinds of microbes
- Develops from some pharyngeal pouches in all vertebrates
- Located at the base of the neck
- Invaded by stem cells that differentiate into lymphocytes that then circulate in the blood and enter the lymph nodes and other lymphoid
- Most prominent in the young and tends to become reduced in older individuals
48
Teeth in Lampreys
Not true teeth, but tooth-like denticles
- Associated with the mouth and rasping tongue
- Keratinized and cone-like
49
True Teeth
Present in Gnathostomes
- Secondarily lost in some
- Usually a marginal series but may be scattered instead of simply restricted to the jaw margin
- Both epidermal and dermal origin
- Homodont in fishes and reptiles, heterodont in mammals
- Composed of a crown, root, pulp cavity; made of enamel, dentine and cementum
50
Acrodont
Teeth are loosely attached to the jaw and are attached to it by ligaments
- Teleosts, Sphenodon
51
Pleurodont
Teeth are half in a socket
| - Many lizards
52
Thecodont
Teeth are deeply set in the jaw
| - Mammals, archosaurian reptiles
53
Polyphyodonty
Teeth are continuously replaced
- Most lower vertebrates
- Replacement is not random but is complex and comes in successive waves of replacement
- Adjacent teeth are replaced out of phase with one another, ensuring no areas of the jaw are never devoid of teeth
54
Diphyodonty
Two sets of teeth
| - Most mammals
55
Monophyodonty
One set of teeth that are never replaced
| - Toothed whales, sloths
56
Coelom
Space in the thoracic cavity that contains various organs and structures
- Begins as two spaces that later partially merge
- Gut forms from the endoderm
- Coelom forms from the hypomere (mesoderm), which splits internally to pouches that expand to form two large bilateral spaces
- Mesoderm: connective tissues, muscles, peritoneum, mesodermal epithelium
- Lateral Hypomere: parietal peritoneum (somatopleure, somatic mesoderm + ectoderm)
- Medial Hypomere: visceral peritoneum (splanchnopleure, splancnic mesoderm + endoderm)
- Left & right coelomic cavities initially separated by the dorsal and ventral mesenteries (splanchnic peritoneum)
- Dorsal mesentery persists in adults and serves as the passage for vessels and nerves
- Ventral mesentery mostly disappears, which make the coelomic cavities merge
57
Pericardial Cavity
Forms from the anteroventral part of the coelomic cavity
- Cavity is initially open but during development a transverse septum develops from mesenchyme
- Cavity is pushed back in tetrapods by the development of the neck
- Extension of the transverse septum (pleuropericardinal membrane) develops to cover the cavity dorsally
58
Pleural Cavity
Separates the lungs from both the coelom and the pericardial cavity
- Mammals, turtles, some lizards, crocodiles, birds
- In mammals, pleuroperitoneal membrane becomes the diaphragm and transverse septum becomes the central tendon
59
Mesenteries
Two apposed sheets of splanchnic hypomere
| - Secure the integrity of cavities, define spaces for organ activity, isolate organs from one another
60
Ventral Mesentery
Area for expansion for the liver (which is a ventral outgrowth of the gut)
- This creates two distinct mesenteries: the lesser omentum and the falciform ligament
- Falciform ligament is the only remnant of the ventral mesentery in an adult
61
Dorsal Mesentery
More prominent than the ventral and becomes quite complex
- In the general sense, there are many mesenteries, but in a strict sense there is also THE mesentery, which surrounds the small intestine
- Mesocolon: supports large intestine
- Mesorectum: supports the rectum
- Mesogaster: AKA greater omentum, supports the stomach
62
Omental Bursa
Forms from an expansion of the mesogaster during development
- Drapes ventrally over viscera, partly due to rotation of the gut
- Contains a lot of an individual's fat
- Contains potential space: the lesser peritoneal cavity
- Entrance is the gastroepiploic foramen
63
Liver
Largest gland of the gut
- Typically divided into lobes
- Supplied by the hepatic artery, hepatic portal vein, drained by hepatic veins
- Develops as a ventral outgrowth of the anterior part of the intestine (endodermal)
- Transverse septum forms the serosa of the liver and coronary ligament
- Connects to gut via the hepatic ducts that lead bile there
64
Bile System
- Bile is produced in the liver
- Carried away by hepatic ducts
- Merge with cystic duct from the gall bladder
- Common bile duct carries bile to the gut
65
Gall Bladder
Holds a reserve of bile that can be sent to the gut when needed
66
Functions of the Liver
1. Storage and manufacturing centre of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats of the body; receives and converts most food that enters the body
2. Production of red blood cells (early fetal stages)
3. Destruction of old blood cells
4. Detoxification and removal of toxic substances from the blood
5. Produces bile, parts of which acts as emulsifiers to help break down fats and make them soluble in water and digestable
67
Pancreas
Produces enzymes/proenzymes and hormones
- Common to all vertebrates but not always a discrete gland
- Within the dorsal mesentery to the stomach and intestine
- Begins as two outgrowths of the intestine (dorsal and ventral
- One or more ducts lead to the duodenum
- Exocrine function: produces alkaline mix of enzymes and proenzymes
- Endocrine function (scattered throughout exocrine): produce insulin and glucagon, both important for controlling glucose levels
68
Islets of Langerhans
AKA Pancreatic Islets
Parts of the pancreas scattered through the exocrine portion that produce glucose-regulating hormones
69
Spleen
Major hemopoetic organ (at least in embryo)
- Not a gland or part of the digestive system, just in the area
- Also functions in defence, storage and destruction of blood cells
- Derives embryologically from gut endoderm
- Loses hemopoetic function in mammals
70
Hemopoetic
Blood-forming
71
Supraspinatus
- Origin: supraspinous fossa of scapula
- Insertion: greater tuberosity of humerus
- Action: extends humerus
72
Infraspinatus
- Origin: infraspinous fossa of scapula
- Insertion: greater tuberosity of humerus
- Action: rotates humerus laterally
73
Teres major
- Origin: posterior border of scapula, dorsal third
- Insertion: medial surface of humerus via tendon in common latissimus dorsi
- Action: flexes and medially rotates the humerus
74
Teres minor
- Origin: posterior border of scapula, distal to glenoid fossa
- Insertion: greater tuberosity of humerus
- Action: flexes and laterally rotates humerus
75
Rhomboideus
- Origin: posterior cervical and anterior thoracic vertebrae
- Insertion: distal border of scapula, distal portion
- Action: draws scapula toward vertebral column
76
Rhomboideus capitis
- Origin: medial portion of nuchal crest
- Insertion: dorsal border of scapula, anterior
- Action: rotates and draws scapula anteriorly
77
Serratus ventralis
cervicis
- Origin: transverse processes of C3-C7
- Insertion: medial surface of scapula, near dorsal border
- Action: draws scapula anteroventrally
thoracis
- Origin: lateral surface of R1-R9/R10
- Insertion: medial edge of scapula, near dorsal border
- Action: draws scapula ventrally, helps support trunk on forelimb
78
Subscapularis
- Origin: subscapular fossa of scapula
- Insertion: lesser tuberosity of humerus
- Action: adducts humerus
79
Coracobrachialis
- Origin: coracoid process of scapula
- Insertion: media surface of proximal end of humerus
- Action: adducts humerus
80
Biceps brachii
- Origin: small tubercle at dorsal margin of glenoid fossa of scapula (via tendon)
- Insertion: bicipital tuberosity of radius (by tendon)
- Action: flexes antebrachium
81
Medial head of the triceps brachii
- Origin: shaft of humerus
- Insertion: olecranon process of ulna (common tendon with lateral and long heads)
- Action: extend antebrachium
82
Digastric
- Origin: mastoid process of temporal and jugular process of occipital
- Insertion: venteromedial surface of dentary
- Action: depresses mandible
83
External intercostals
- Origin: posterior margin of a rib
- Insertion: anterior margin of the adjacent posterior rib
- Action: protracts ribs, increasing the diameter of the thorax
84
External oblique
- Origin: posterior 9-10 ribs and lumbodorsal fascia
- Insertion: mainly linea alba (sternum to pubis, via aponeurosis)
- Action: constricts abdomen
85
Genioglossus
- Origin: medial surface of dentary
- Insertion: tongue, posterior fibers on basihyoid and ceratohyoid
- Action: depresses tongue, draws root anteriorly, curls tip of tongue ventrally
86
Geniohyoid
- Origin: ventromedial surface of dentary (just posterior to symphysis)
- Insertion: ventral surface of basihyoid
- Action: draws hyoid anteriorly
87
Hyoglossus
- Origin: lateral part of ventral surface of basihyoid
- Insertion: tongue
- Action: depresses and retracts tongue
88
Iliocostalis
- Origin: lateral surface of ribs
- Insertion: lateral surface of more anterior ribs
- Action: draws ribs together
89
Internal intercostals
- Origin: anterior margin of a rib
- Insertion: posterior margin of the adjacent anterior rib
- Action: retracts ribs, decreasing diameter of thorax
90
Internal oblique
- Origin: lumbodorsal fascia and iliac crest
- Insertion: linea alba (via aponeurosis)
- Action: constricts abdomen
91
Lingualis proprius
Intrinsic musculature of the tongue
- Bundles arranged in longitudinal, transverse and vertical groups
- Responsible for complex movements
92
Longissimus capitis
- Origin: prezygapophyses of C4-C7
- Insertion: mastoid process of temporal
- Action: flexes head laterally
93
Longissimus dorsi
medial division
- Origin: sacral and caudal vertebrae
- Insertion: more anterior lumbar/sacral/caudal vertebrae
- Action: extends vertebral column
lateral division
- Origin: ilium and deep layer of lumbodorsal fascia
- Insertion: more anterior lumbar and thoracic vertebrae
- Action: extends vertebral column
94
Longus colli
- Origin: ventral surface of T1-T6; slips from cervical vert.
- Insertion: transverse processes of all cervical vertebrae
- Action: flexes neck laterally and ventrally
95
Masseter
- Origin: zygomatic arch
- Insertion: ventral part of masseteric fossa of dentary
- Action: elevates mandible
96
Multifidus
- Origin: more posterior sacral, lumbar, thoracic and cervical vertebrae
- Insertion: neural processes of more anterior vertebrae
- Action: (singly) flexes vertebral column laterally; (with other side) extends vertebral column
97
Mylohyoid
- Origin: medial surface of dentary
- Insertion: midventral raphe, posterior fibres to basihyoid bone
- Action: elevates floor of oral cavity; draws hyoid anteriorly
98
Pterygoid
- Origin: pterygoid blade of skull
- Insertion: medial surface of angular region of dentary
- Action: elevates mandible
99
Rectus abdominis
- Origin: pubis
- Insertion: costal cartilages of sternum
- Action: compresses abdomen; flexes the trunk (draws ribs and sternum posteriorly)
100
Scalenus
- Origin: ribs
- Insertion: transverse processes of all cervical vertebrae
- Action: flexes neck or draws ribs anteriorly
101
Semispinalis capitis
- Origin: prezygapophyses of C3-C7 & T1-T3
- Insertion: medial third of nuchal crest
- Action: elevates head
102
Semispinalis cervicis
- Origin: neural processes of C7, T1-T3; prezygapophyses of T2-T5
- Insertion: medial third of nuchal crest
- Elevates head
103
Serratus dorsalis caudalis
- Origin: middorsally from neural processes of lumbar vertebrae
- Insertion: posterior 4-5 ribs
- Action: draws ribs posteriorly
104
Serratus dorsalis cranialis
- Origin: middorsal raphe between axis and T10 (via aponeurosis)
- Insertion: lateral surface of the first 9 ribs
- Action: Draws ribs anteriorly
105
Spinalis dorsi
- Origin: neural spines of T10-T13
- Insertion: cervical and more anterior thoracic vertebrae
- Action: extends vertebral column
106
Splenius
- Origin: anterior middorsal line
- Insertion: nuchal crest
- Action: (singly) flexes head laterally; (with other side) elevates head
107
Sternohyoid
- Origin: 1st costal cartilage and manubrium
- Insertion: basihyoid
- Action: draws hyoid posteriorly
108
Sternomastoid
- Origin: manubrium, anterior surface
- Insertion: nuchal crest, lateral portion; mastoid process
- Action: (singly) flexes neck laterally; (with other side) depresses snout
109
Sternothyroid
- Origin: first costal cartilage
- Insertion: thyroid cartilage of larynx, posterolateral surface
- Action: draws larynx posteriorly
110
Styloglossus
- Origin: mastoid process; stylohyoid
- Insertion: tongue
- Action: elevates and retracts tongue
111
Temporalis
- Origin: temporal fossa of skull; temporal fascia
- Insertion: coronoid process of dentary
- Action: elevates mandible
112
Thyrohyoid
- Origin: thyroid cartilage of larynx, lateral surface
- Insertion: thyrohyoid
- Action: draws hyoid posteriorly and dorsally
113
Transverse abdominis
- Origin: costal cartilages; transverse processes of lumbar vertebrae; ventral margin of ilium
- Insertion: linea alba
- Action: constricts abdomen
114
Transverse costarum
- Origin: sternum, lateral margin
- Insertion: first rib and costal cartilage
- Action: draws ribs anteriorly
115
Transverse thoracis
- Origin: sternum, dorsolateral margin between R3-R8
- Insertion: costal cartilages near rib attachments
- Action: draws ventral portion of ribs anteriorly
116
Parotid Gland
Largest salivary gland
- Lies ventral to the ear
- Irregular with obvious lobules and an elongated, tapered ventral portion
117
Mandibular Gland
Small salivary gland
- Lies posterior to the ventral portion of the parotid gland
- Smooth and nearly oval
118
Maxillary Vein
Crosses the anterior part of the mandibular gland and passes deep to the parotid gland
119
Lymph nodes
Small, smooth (no lobules), present in the same area as the salivary glands
- Two are present ventral to the parotid and mandibular glands
120
Linguofacial Vein
Passes between two lymph nodes ventral to the parotid and mandibular glands
121
Parotid Duct
Thick, whitish strand that passes over the middle portion of the masseter, extends toward upper lip
122
Facial nerve
Two branches cross the masseter
123
Mandibular Duct
Emerges from the anteroventral part of the mandibular gland
- Whitish strand
- Passes ventral to a small glandular mass
124
Sublingual Gland
Small gland that lies deep to the mandibular gland and ventral part of the parotid gland
125
Labia
Lips
126
Vestibule
Portion of the oral cavity between the lips and teeth
127
Oral Cavity Proper
Portion of the oral cavity, bounded by the teeth anteriorly and laterally, extending just beyond the hard palate
128
Palatal Rugae
Roughened transverse ridges on the epithelial covering of the hard palate
129
Lingual Frenulum
Vertical median flap that anchors the tongue to the floor of the oral cavity
130
Lingual Papillae
- Filiform: most numerous
- Fungiform: rounded, interspersed among filiform papillae
- Vallate: on posterodorsal surface
- Foliate: along the side of the posterior end of the tongue
131
Tonsillar Fossae
Located at the posterior end of the oral cavity
| - Paired palatine tonsils are located within
132
Palatoglossal Arches
Lateral folds just anterior to the tonsillar fossae
133
Soft Palate
Fleshy posterior continuation of the hard palate
134
Nasopharyx
Region dorsal to the soft palate
| - Exclusively used in respiration
135
Oropharynx
Region ventral to the soft palate
- Dominantly digestive
- Lies posterior to the oral pharynx
136
Laryngopharynx
Posterior continuation of the naso- and oro- pharynx; posterior to soft palate
- Communicates with the larynx posteroventrally and esophagus posterodorsally
137
Auditory Tube
Tube that leads from the dorsolateral wall of the nasopharynx to the middle ear
138
Larynx
Chamber at the anterior end of the trachea
| - Formed from several cartilages
139
Glottis
Opening into the larynx
| - Guarded by the epiglottis
140
Epiglottis
Plough-like, cartilaginous structure at the base of the tongue
- Supported by an epiglottal cartilage
- Flipped back to cover the glottis during swallowing
141
Laryngeal Cartilages
- Thyroid: largest, incomplete dorsally and contacts the thyrohyoid anteriorly
- Cricoid: lies slightly distal to the thyroid, complete ring, narrower ventrally than dorsally
- Arytenoid: small, multiple, complete larynx dorsally anterior to cricoid
- Epiglottal: rests on anteroventral part of the thyroid
142
Cricothyroid Muscle
Extends between the cricoid and thyroid cartilages
143
Vocal Cords
Posterior folds on either side of the larynx
- Extend between arytenoid and thyroid
- Glottis lies between them
144
False Vocal Cords
Accessory pair of folds on either side of the larynx
- Extend between arytenoid and epiglottal
- Larger and looser than the vocal cords, lie anterior to them
145
Tracheal Cartilages
C-shaped, dorsally incomplete cartilaginous elements
| - Keep the trachea open
146
Thoracic Cavity
Anterior part of the coelom
Subdivisions
- Left and right pleural cavities
- Median mediastinum
147
Abdominopelvic Cavity
Posterior part of the coelom
148
Diaphragm
Muscular partition that separates the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities
149
Pleural Cavities
Contain the left and right lungs
150
Mediastinum
Contains other structures (besides the lungs) that lie in or pass through the thorax
- Heart
- Esophagus
- Trachea
- Nearly all vessels and nerves
151
Pleura
Serosa of the thoracic cavity
- Parietal pleura lines the inside of the cavity
- Visceral pleura envelops the lungs
152
Mediastinal Septum
Double layer of pleura near the midline
| - Formed by the meeting of right and left pleura
153
Lungs
Right Lobes
- Anterior
- Middle
- Posterior
- Accessory
Left Lobes
- Anterior
- Middle
- Posterior
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Caval Fold
Pocket-like expansion of the mediastinal septum, just posterolateral to the heart
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Pulmonary Ligament
Flat, broad, sheet-like connective tissue that suspends the lung in the pleural cavity
156
Primary Bronchii
Bifurcations of the trachea near the level of the sixth rib
| - Each subsequently branches into secondary and tertiary bronchii
157
Pericardial Cavity
Space, enveloped within the lungs, in which the heart sits
158
Pericardium
Tough connective tissue that covers the pericardial cavity
159
Visceral Pericardium
Pericardium that covers the surface of the heart
160
Parietal Pericardium
Lines the inner surface of the pericardium
161
Peritoneum
Serous epithelium that covers the abdominopelvic cavity and its contained structures
162
Parietal Peritoneum
Peritoneum that lines the walls of the abdominopelvic cavity
163
Visceral Peritoneum
Peritoneum that covers the structures within the abdominopelvic cavity
164
Round Ligament
Sight expansion of the ventral edge of the falciform ligament that may or may not be present
165
Central Tendon
Medial on the diaphragm
166
Coronary Ligament
Short structure between the diaphragm and liver on either side of the falciform ligament
167
Liver Lobes
- Right medial
- Left medial
- Quadrate
- Left lateral
- Right lateral
- Caudate
168
Gall Bladder
Separates the right medial and quadrate lobes of the liver
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Greater Curvature
Long, convex surface of the stomach
170
Lesser Curvature
Shorter, concave surface of the stomach
171
Pyloric Sphyncter
Constriction of the stomach distally and toward the right
172
Rugae
Folds that line the inner walls of the stomach
173
Median Ligament
Mesentery that passes from the bladder to the midventral wall
174
Lateral Ligaments
Often fat-filled mesenteries that support either side of the bladder
175
Lesser Omentum
Extends from the lesser curvature of the stomach and duodenum to the liver
- Ventral mesentery
176
Hepatogastric Ligament
Part of the lesser omentum that stretches from the lesser curvature to the liver
177
Hepatoduodenal Ligament
Part of the lesser omentum that passes from the proximal part of the duodenum to the liver; appears to head toward the gall bladder
178
Lesser Peritoneal Cavity
Potential space contained within the sac of the omental bursa, normally empty
179
Epiploic Foramen
Foramen through which the lesser peritoneal cavity communicates with the abdominopelvic cavity
180
Gastrosplenic Ligament
Stretches between the stomach and spleen
181
Duodenum
Short initial/proximal segment of the small intestine (first loop)
182
Cecum (Cat)
Blind-ended segment of the colon that passes posterior to the union with the small intestine
183
Ascending Colon
Extends anteriorly on the right side
184
Transverse Colon
Passes from right to left
185
Descending Colon
Extends posteriorly on the left side
186
Rectum
Distal continuation of the colon that leads to the anus
187
Mesocolon
Suspends the descending colon from the middorsal body wall
188
Mesorectum
Supports the rectum
189
Mesoduodenum
Supports the duodenum and contains the head of the pancreas
190
Duodenocolic Ligament
Small triangular mesentery that extends between the mesoduodenum and mesocolon
191
Hepatorenal Ligament
Small triangular mesentery that extends between the posteromedial end of the caudate lobe of the liver and the peritoneum covering the kidney
192
The Mesentery
Supports the jejunum and ileum (small intestine)
193
Mesenteric Lymph Nodes
Lymph nodes that are found within The Mesentery
194
Pancreatic Duct
Carries exocrine secretions from the pancreas to the duodenum
- Passes alongside the bile duct
195
Base
Flattened, anterior portion of the heart
196
Apex
Pointed, posterior portion of the heart
197
Atria
Anterior, left and right portions of the heart
198
Ventricles
Posterior, left and right portions of the heart
199
Coronary Arteries
Small arteries on the surface of the heart
200
Coronary Veins
Small veins on the surface of the heart
201
Intraventicular Groove
Marks the separation of the ventricles on the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the heart
- Passes anteriorly on the left to posteriorly on the right
- Often filled with fat
202
Coronary Sulcus
Marks the separation between the atria and ventricles
203
Auricle
Lateral extension of each atrium
- Scalloped margins
- Usually darker than the rest of the heart tissue
204
Vena Cava
Anterior and Posterior
- Where oxygen-depleted blood returns to the heart through the right atrium
Anterior Branches:
- Azygos
- Internal Mammary
- Diverges into the l&r brachiocephalic veins
205
Pulmonary Trunk
Leaves the heart from the middle part of the ventral surface of the right ventricle
- Angled to the left
- Divides almost immediately into pulmonary arteries
206
Aorta
Carries blood from the left ventricle
| - Extends anteriorly just dorsal to the pulmonary trunk and medial to the right auricle
207
Aortic Arch
Where the aorta curves sharply to the left
| - Summit gives rise to the brachiocephalic artery and left subclavian artery
208
Thoracic Aorta
After the aortic arch, passes posteriorly and dorsal to the root of the left lung
209
Ligamentum Anteriosum
Tough ligamentous band that connects the aortic arch and pulmonary trunk
210
Pulmonary Artery
Left & right
- Left passes laterally to the left lung
- Right passes under the aortic arch to reach the right lung
211
Pulmonary Vein
Left & right
| - Returns blood from the lungs to the heart
212
Brachiocephalic Artery
Large artery that arises on the right of the aortic arch
213
Left Subclavian Artery
Arises on the left of the aortic arch
214
Azygos Vein
Most posterior branch of the anterior vena cava
- Passes dorsally, abruptly posteriorly then dorsal to the root of the right lung
- Drains intercostal areas
215
Intercostal veins
Drain blood from the intercostal areas to the azygos vein
216
Highest Intercostal Veins
Intercostal veins at the anterior intercostal areas
| - May enter directly into the vena cava or the anterior end of the azygos
217
Intercostal Arteries
Supply blood to the intercostal areas
218
Highest Intercostal Arteries
Supply anterior intercostal areas
219
Internal Mammary Vein
Enters the ventral surface of the anterior vena cava, formed from the confluence of the left and right internal mammary veins
220
Internal Mammary Artery
Left and right
| - Mostly parallel to the veins
221
Brachiocephalic Vein
Left and right
Arises from splitting of the anterior vena cava
Branches
- Costocervical + vertebral trunk
222
Costocervical + Vertebral Trunk
Large vein formed by the confluence of the costocervical vein and vertebral vein
223
Vertebral Vein
Heads almost directly anteriorly
224
Costocervical Vein
Heads laterally then posteriorly
