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EEB263 > Quiz 2 > Flashcards

Quiz 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Hepatic Portal Vein

A

Large vein that lies in the gastrohepatoduodenal ligament

Formed from the union of the gastric, pancreaticomesenteric and lienomesenteric veins near the top of the dorsal lobe of the pancreas

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2
Q

Gastric Vein

A

Accompanies gastric artery onto the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the stomach

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3
Q

Lienomesenteric Vein

A

Extends along the dorsal lobe of the pancreas

Formed by confluence of the posterior lienogastric vein and posterior intestinal vein

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4
Q

Posterior lienogastric vein

A

Vein that comes from the spleen and posterior part of the stomach

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5
Q

Posterior Intestinal Vein

A

Arises from the posterior part of the intestine

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6
Q

Pancreaticomesenteric Vein

A

Accompanies the pancreaticomesenteric artery to the beginning of the intestine, where it is formed by others such as the anterior intestinal vein and the anterior lienogastric vein

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7
Q

Anterior Intestinal Vein

A

Extends parallel to the anterior intestinal artery

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8
Q

Anterior Lienogastric Vein

A

Comes from the spleen and pyloric regions of the stomach

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9
Q

Caudal Vein

A

Passes anteriorly through the hemal arches of the caudal vertebrae

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10
Q

Afferent Renal Veins

A

Branch from the renal portal veins to carry blood to the kidneys

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11
Q

Anterior Cardinal Sinus

A

Large vein that lies dorsal to the pharyngobranchial cartilages

Receives vessels that drain the eye, brain, head

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12
Q

Orbital Sinus

A

Surrounds the eye and transports blood to the anterior cardinal sinus

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13
Q

Inferior Jugular Vein

A

Thin vessel that drains the floor of the branchial region

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14
Q

Hyoidean Sinus

A

Connects the anterior cardinal sinus and inferior jugular vein on either side of the head

Lies along the posterior surface of the hyoid arch

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15
Q

Hepatic Vein/Sinus

A

Collects blood from the liver and opens into the posterior wall of the sinus venosus

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16
Q

Common Cardinal Vein

A

Receives blood from the main vessels (except the liver), passing it back into the posterolateral corners of the sinus venosus

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17
Q

Subclavian Vein

A

Enters the common cardinal vein just lateral to the entrance of the inferior jugular

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18
Q

Posterior Cardinal Sinus

A

Large space lying dorsolateral to the esophagus, bounded by a thin-walled membrane

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19
Q

Posterior Cardinal Vein

A

Vein that lies lateral to the dorsal aorta

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20
Q

Efferent Renal Veins

A

Collect blood from kidneys and intersegmental veins that drain blood from body wall

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21
Q

Lateral Abdominal Vein

A

Extends along the inside of the ventrolateral body wall on each side

Formed from confluence of cloacal vein and femoral vein

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22
Q

Cloacal Vein

A

Vein that drains blood from the cloaca

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23
Q

Femoral Vein

A

Drains blood from the pelvic fin

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24
Q

Subscapular Vein

A

Extends parallel to the subclavian artery

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25
Q

Brachial Vein

A

Lies on the medial surface of the pectoral fin along with the brachial artery

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26
Q

Kidneys

A

Long, narrow structures on either side of the dorsal aorta on the roof of the body ccavity

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27
Q

Testes

A

Paired, elongated gonads of the male that lie dorsal to the liver in the pleuroperitoneal cavity

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28
Q

Ovaries

A

Paired, elongated gonads of the female that lie dorsal to the liver

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29
Q

Caudal Ligament

A

Between the posterior ends of the kidneys, arising from the vertebrae and passing to the tail

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30
Q

Epididymis

A

Most anterior part of the kidney in males, includes tubules that help transport sperm

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31
Q

Leydig’s Gland

A

Middle third of the kidney in males that house tubules that make secretions to help transport sperm

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32
Q

Mesorchium

A

Mesentery that supports the testes and suspends them from the body cavity

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33
Q

Ductuli Efferentes

A

Small tubules in the anterior part of the mesorchium that extend from the testis to tubules in the epididymis

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34
Q

Archinephric Duct

A

Tightly convoluted, embedded in the ventral surface of the kidney (mature male)

Nearly straight in immature male, resembles oviduct

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35
Q

Sperm Sac

A

On ventral surface of seminal vesicle

Anteriorly blindly ending pouch

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36
Q

Accessory Urinary Duct

A

Thin duct that carries urine to the urogenital sinus

Extends along the medial margin of the kidney

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37
Q

Siphon

A

Lies just deep to the skin on the ventral surface of the pelvic fin

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38
Q

Mesovarium

A

Mesentery that suspends the ovaries from the body wall

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39
Q

Oviduct

A

Lies on the ventral surface of each kidney
Narrow, unsupported by mesentery in immature
Larger and supported in adult

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40
Q

Mesotubarium

A

Mesentery that supports the oviduct in adult females

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41
Q

Ostium Tubae

A

Opening of the left and right oviducts in the free edge of the falciform ligament

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42
Q

Nidamental Gland

A

Swelling of the oviduct dorsal to the ovary

Secretes a thin membrane around groups of eggs as they pass to the oviduct; where eggs are fertilized

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43
Q

Uterus

A

Enlargement of the oviduct that occurs posteriorly

Contains developing pups

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44
Q

Ampullae of Lorenzini

A

Modified parts of the lateral line system

Series of tube-like structures just below and parallel to the skin

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45
Q

Lateral Line Canal

A

Extends midlaterally along the length of the body and into the tail
Lies within the skin and leads to other canals in the head

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46
Q

Olfactory Sacs

A

Function in olfaction (duh)
Has lateral incurrent and medial excurrent nares
Has lamellae within on which sensory receptors lie

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47
Q

Superficial Opthalmic Nerve

A

Passes anteroposteriorly along the dorsomedial wall of the orbit

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48
Q

Oblique Muscles (2)

A

Dorsal & Ventral

Pass from the anteromedial wall of the orbit and attach dorsally and ventralls

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49
Q

Rectus Muscles (4)

A

Lateral, medial, dorsal, ventral
Radiate toward the eyeball from the posteromedial wall of the orbit
- Lateral attaches to posterior surface
- Medial attaches to medial/anterior surface
- Dorsal attaches to the top- Ventral

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50
Q

Deep Opthalmic Nerve

A

Thin strand that passes anteroposteriorly through the orbit and adheres to the medial surface of the eye

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51
Q

Optic Nerve

A

Extends from the medial wall of the orbit, laterally to the eyeball

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52
Q

Infraorbital Nerve

A

Passes anteriorly and slightly ventrally in the orbit

Nearly as wide as any of the extrinsic muscles

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53
Q

Preorbitalis

A

Muscle that passes anteromedially across the floor of the orbit

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54
Q

Oculomotor Nerve

A

Passes ventrally and around the margin of the ventral rectus

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55
Q

Abducens Nerve

A

Innervates the lateral rectus

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56
Q

Trochlear Nerve

A

Passes into the dorsal oblique

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57
Q

Mandibular Nerve

A

Lies on the posterior wall of the orbit, posterior to lateral rectus, extends laterally

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58
Q

Cornea

A

Lateral portion of the eyeball, transparent

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59
Q

Sclera

A

Remainder of the eyeball, cartilaginous

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60
Q

Iris

A

Pigmented structure of the eyeball visible through the cornea, with circular pupil at centre

  • Modified vascular tunic
  • Contains intrinsic musculature that allows control over the size of the pupil
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61
Q

Lens

A

Hard spherical structure within the eye

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62
Q

Choroid

A

Dark pigmented layer internal to the sclera

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63
Q

Suprachoroidea

A

Vascular tissue between the choroid and sclera on the medial wall of the eye where the pedicle attaches

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64
Q

Ciliary Body

A

Holds the lens in place

Contains intrinsic musculature to help control shape of the lens

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65
Q

Retina

A

Light tissue internal to the choroid

Light sensitive, contains photoreceptors responsible for absorbing light

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66
Q

Vitreous Chamber

A

Large cavity of the eyeball medial to the lens

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67
Q

Vitreous Humor

A

Gelatinous mass in the vitreous chamber, helps maintain eyeball’s shape and holds retina in place

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68
Q

Anterior/Posterior Chamber

A

Divisions of the cavity lateral to the lens, subdivided by the iris

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69
Q

Aqueous Humor

A

Watery fluid that fills the anterior and posterior chamber

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70
Q

Membranous Labyrinth

A

Series of ducts and sacs in the inner ear

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71
Q

Cartilaginous Labyrinth

A

Series of canals and chambers that contain the membranous labyrinth

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72
Q

Anterior/posterior Semicircular Duct

A

Vertically oriented ducts within the membranous labyrinth

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73
Q

Lateral Semicircular Duct

A

Horizontally oriented duct within the membranous labyrinth

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74
Q

Sacculus

A

Large, triangular sac-like structure that extends between the vertical ducts and medial to the lateral duct

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75
Q

Endolymphatic Duct

A

Extends dorsally from the sacculus and reaches the exterior surface of the head through the endolymphatic pores

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76
Q

Anterior/Posterior Utriculi

A

Closely associated with the sacculus, communicates with it through small openings

  • Anterior attaches to anterior and lateral semicircular ducts
  • Posterior attaches to posterior semicircular duct
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77
Q

Lagena

A

Posteroventral extension of the sacculus

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78
Q

Ampullae

A

Little bulbs that occur at the ends of ducts in the inner ear

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79
Q

Epiphysis

A

Extends dorsally from the posterior side of the epithalamus to the epiphyseal foramen

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80
Q

Telencephalon

A

Most anterior portion of the brain

Contains:

  • Olfactory bulbs
  • Olfactory tracts
  • Cerebrum
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81
Q

Olfactory Bulbs

A

Telencephalon

Bulbs at the anterior end of the olfactory tracts, attach to the olfactory sacs anteriorly

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82
Q

Olfactory Tracts

A

Telencephalon

Narrow tracts that attach the olfactory bulbs to the cerebrum

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83
Q

Cerebral Hemispheres

A

Telencephalon

Extend from the posterior sides of the olfactory tracts, a little ways before going ventrally on the brain

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84
Q

Cerebrum

A

Two cerebral hemispheres together

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85
Q

Diencephalon

A

Second portion of the brain, posterior to the telencephalon and anterior to the mesencephalonIncludes:

  • Epithalamus
  • Thalamus
  • Hypothalamus
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86
Q

Epithalamus

A

Roof of the diencephalon

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87
Q

Thalamus

A

Side of the diencephalon

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88
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Floor of the diencephalon

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89
Q

Telea Choroidea

A

Diencephalon

Thin, vascular tissue that forms the epithalamus
Attaches anteriorly to the cerebrum

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90
Q

Third ventricle

A

Diencephalon

Cavity within the diencephalon that contains various vascular structures

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91
Q

Foramen of Monro

A

Diencephalon

Foramen through which the third ventricle leads to the left and right lateral ventricles

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92
Q

Lateral Ventricles

A

Diencephalon

Left & rightLie respectively in the left and right cerebral hemispheres

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93
Q

Mesencephalon

A

Third portion of the brain, posterior to the diencephalon and anterior to the metencephalon

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94
Q

Optic Lobes

A

Mesencephalon

Paired, rounded

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95
Q

Cerebellum

A

Metencephalon

Large, main structure of metencephalon
Partially overhangs optic lobes anteriorly and myelencephalon posteriorly

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96
Q

Auricles

A

Metencephalon, cerebellum

Project anterolaterally from the posterior end of the metencephalon

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97
Q

Metencephalon

A

Fourth portion of the brain, posterior to mesencephalon and anterior to myelencephalon

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98
Q

Myelencephalon

A

Most posterior part of the brain, largely tubular

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99
Q

Medulla Oblongata

A

Myelencephalon

Posterior part of the brain that narrows into the spinal cord
- Roof covered by telea choroidea

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100
Q

Fourth ventricle

A

Myelencephalon

Cavity of the medulla, revealed by removing the telea choroidea; has various ridges and grooves

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101
Q

Somatic Motor Columns

A

Myelencephalon

Two large midventral ridges on either side of the midventral groove within the fourth ventricle

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102
Q

Visceral Sensory Columns

A

Large longitudinal ridges lateral to the somatic motor columns (divided by a depression)

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103
Q

Visceral motor columns

A

Small columns between the somatic motor columns and visceral sensory columns

104
Q

Somatic sensory column

A

Large longitudinal ridge dorsal to each visceral sensory column

Surface has form of small, bead-like swellings

105
Q

Acousticolateral Area

A

Anterior enlargement of the somatic sensory column

106
Q

Terminal Nerve

A

Most anterior cranial nerve

Passes along the medial side of the olfactory tract

107
Q

Olfactory Nerve

A

Second most anterior nerve

Pass from olfactory sac into olfactory bulb

108
Q

Oculomotor Nerve

A

Arises from ventral surface of the mesencephalon and branches to innervate ventral oblique and dorsal/ventral/medial rectus

109
Q

Trochlear Nerve

A

Extends anterolaterally from the dorsal surface of the mesencephalon

Innervates dorsal oblique

110
Q

Abducens Nerve

A

Arises from ventral surface of the medulla

Passes anterolaterally and innervates the lateral rectus (found on ventral side)

111
Q

Trigeminal Nerve

A

Arises from the anterior part of the medulla, just behind the auricles of the cerebellum

Large nerve that divides into four branches on emerging into the orbit - superficial opthalmic, deep opthalmic, mandibular, maxillary

112
Q

Superficial Opthalmic Branch

A

Branch of the trigeminal nerve

Most dorsal of the branches, passes just ventral to the dorsal margin of the orbit

113
Q

Deep Opthalmic Branch

A

Branch of the trigeminal nerve

Passes through orbit and adheres to dorsoventral surface of eyeball

114
Q

Mandibular Branch

A

Branch of trigeminal nerve

Extends laterally along posterior wall of orbit, almost directly posterior to lateral rectus

115
Q

Maxillary Branch

A

Branch of trigeminal nerve

Contributes to infraorbital nerve

116
Q

Infraorbital Nerve

A

Large nerve passing along the floor of the orbit and crossing the preorbitalis

117
Q

Facial Nerve

A

Arises from the anterior part of the medulla, just behind the auricles of the cerebellum

Two branches: hyomandibular and palatine

118
Q

Hyomandibular Branch

A

Branch of facial nerve
Forms hyomandibular nerve along with AVLLN

Passes over levator hyomandibulae
Has geniculate ganglion, swelling near origin

119
Q

Palatine Branch

A

Branch of facial nerve

Participates in the innervation of the lining of the oral cavity

120
Q

Statoacoustic Nerve

A

Arises from the anterior part of the medulla, just behind the auricles of the cerebellum

Short nerve that innervates the ear

121
Q

Preotic Lateral Line Nerves

A

Arise from the anterior part of the medulla, just behind the auricles of the cerebellum

  • Anterodorsal Lateral Line Nerve (ADLLN)
  • Anteroventral Lateral Line Nerve (AVLLN)
  • Otic Lateral Line Nerve (OLLN)
122
Q

Glossopharyngeal Nerve

A

Arises posterior to the statoacoustic nerve

Extends through floor of otic capsule to first pharyngeal slit

Swelling, petrosal ganglion before emerges from the capsule

Divides into posttrematic and pretrematic branches

123
Q

Postotic Lateral Line Nerves

A

Arise from the brain between the glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves

  • Middle Lateral Line Nerve (MLLN)
  • Supratemporal Lateral Line Nerve (STLLN)
  • Posterior Lateral Line Nerve (PLLN)
124
Q

Vagus nerve

A

Mainly innervates pharyngeal slits 2-5 and viscera
Arises from medulla just posterior to glossopharyngeal, clumped with postotic lateral line nerves
Has visceral and intestinal branches

125
Q

Branchial Branches

A

Branches of the vagus nerve, visceral branch
Branches that innervate pharyngeal slits 2-5-
Subdivides into pretrematic, posttrematic and pharyngeal branches

126
Q

Hypobranchial Nerve

A

Crosses the intestinal branch of the vagus nerve, innervates hypobranchial musculature

127
Q

Occipital Nerve

A

Union of slender roots posterior to the vagus nerve, partially merges with vagus

128
Q

Hypophysis

A

Ventral extension of the brain, just behind the optic nerves

129
Q

Optic Chiasm

A

Where the optic nerves cross over to the opposite side of the brain toward the anterior part of the hypothalamus

130
Q

Infundibulum

A

Forms the remainder of the hypothalamus not covered by optic nerve

131
Q

Vascular Sac

A

Continuation of the infundibulum posterior to each inferior lobe

132
Q

Central Canal

A

Narrow canal within the spinal cord, filled with cerebrospinal fluid in life (as are the ventricles)

133
Q

Optic ventricle

A

Extension of the third ventricle into the optic lobes and hypophysis

134
Q

Cerebellar ventricle

A

Continuation of the fourth ventricle into the cerebellum

135
Q

Cerebellar Aqueduct

A

Narrow canal that connects the third and fourth ventricles

136
Q

Synapsida

A

Clade within Amniota
Include Mammalia and fossil relatives
Characterized by synapsid skull type

137
Q

Therapsida

A

Clade within Synapsida

Contains mammals and relatives

138
Q

Non-mammalian synapsids

A

Usually referred to as “mammal-like reptiles”

- More reptile-like in general way of living

139
Q

Mammalian Features

A
  • Mammary glands
  • Hair
  • Muscular diaphragm
  • Single dentary forms mandible
  • 3 middle ear ossicles
  • Complex tooth form
  • Body above legs
140
Q

Mammals vs. Reptiles

A

Mammal

  • Single dentary forms each lower jaw half
  • Three middle ear ossicles: malleus, incus, stapes
  • Squamosal-dentary jaw joint

Reptile

  • Several bones form each lower jaw half
  • One middle ear ossicle: stapes
  • Quadrate-articular jaw joint

In mammals, articular and quadrate have become the malleus and incus, respectively; angular has become ectotympanic
- At transitional stages, squamosal, quadrate, articular and dentary all involved in joint

141
Q

Pelycosaur

A

Early synapsid

Not a natural group

142
Q

Monotremata

A 
Monotremes
Only three species: 1 platypus, 2 echidnas
- Retain cloaca
- Lack nipples
- Lay eggs w/ leathery shell
143
Q

Theria

A

Includes Marsupialia & Eutheria

144
Q

Marsupialia

A
  • Occur in Australia & South America
  • Females of many have pouch
  • Young born at early stage, complete development in pouch
  • Have placenta, but usually non-vascularized yolk sac placenta
145
Q

Eutheria

A
  • Much more numerous and widespread than marsupials and monotremes
  • All have chorioallantoic placenta
  • Young remain in utero to become more advanced before birth
146
Q

Embrology

A

Processes involved in the early development of an individual

  • Important for animal (obvi)
  • Characters can be used to study phylogeny
  • Helps understand basic organization of systems
147
Q

Early embryological processes

A

Vary greatly among vertebrates
All lead to similar end, but get there differently
Differences mainly due to egg type, amount of yolk
- Microlecithal
- Mesolecithal
- Macrolecithal

148
Q

Microlecithal

A

Egg with little yolk

149
Q

Mesolecithal

A

Egg with moderate amount of yolk

150
Q

Macrolecithal

A

Egg with a lot of yolk

151
Q

Vegetal pole

A

Lower hemisphere of an egg that contains yolk

152
Q

Animal pole

A

Hemisphere of egg that is less yolky and contains developing embryo

153
Q

Microlecithal development

A
  1. Two vertical divisions followed by a horizontal
  2. Divisions continue to happen
  3. Egg becomes spherical (blastula), 1 cell thick in amphioxus
154
Q

Blastula

A

Spherical mass of cells with central cavity in developing egg

155
Q

Blastocoele

A

Central cavity within a blastula

156
Q

Mesolecithal development

A
  • Initial cell divisions not equal
  • Cells of animal pole smaller
  • Blastula that is several cells thick
  • Blastocoele displaced to animal pole
157
Q

Macrolecithal development

A
  • Only small bit of protoplasm at top
  • Cell division occurs within small cap
  • Blastula is plate of cells at animal pole
  • Blastula separated from yolk by blastocoele
158
Q

Mammalian development

A
  • Embryo develops in uterus instead of egg
  • Division forms spherical mass that appears superficially like microlecithal but is not
  • Outer structure is trophoblast, within which there is a cell mass at animal pole
159
Q

Trophoblast

A

Spherical structure of early mammalian embryo

160
Q

Gastrulization

A 
Division and migration of cells to produce a gastrula
Leads to 3 primary germ layers:
- Ectoderm
- Mesoderm
- Endoderm
161
Q

Microlecithal Gastrulization

A
  • Vegetal pole of blastula folds into cup-like structure by rolling cells into blastocoele
  • Cells of animal
162
Q

Gastrocoele

A

A.K.A. archenteron

Infolding of the gastrula after blastula has rolled into the blastocoele

163
Q

Blastopore

A

Entrance into the gastrocoele

164
Q

Ectoderm

A

Formed from the cells of the animal pole
Create outer layer of skin, nervous system, lining of oral cavity
- Covers neurectoderm/neural tube

165
Q

Endoderm

A

Formed from the cells of the vegetal pole
Create digestive tract and visceral derivatives; liver, pancreas, lining of lungs, digestive tract and urinary bladder
- Expands dorsomedially and surrounds archenteron

166
Q

Neurectoderm

A

Dorsal middle of ectoderm
Becomes brain, spinal cord, nerves and parts of eye
- Inpockets and is covered by ectoderm
- Neural crest cells begin to migrate

167
Q

Mesoderm

A 
Formed between the ectoderm and endoderm
Create skeleton, muscle, circulatory system
Two kinds:
- Chordamesoderm
- Lateral mesoderm
168
Q

Chordamesoderm

A

Mesoderm along the dorsal midline, forms the notochord

169
Q

Lateral mesoderm

A 
Mesoderm except along dorsal midline
Forms the organs and stuff
- Expands laterodorsally on either side
- Subdivides forming the coelom
- Subdivides dorsoventrally into epimere, mesomere, hypomere; coelom enlarges
170
Q

Neurogenic placodes

A

Clusters of cells in the neurectoderm that swell to become different structures
- Become various sensory head structures

171
Q

Neural crest cells

A

Cells in the neurectoderm that migrate to other parts of the body
- Become visceral skeleton inc. jaws, meninges, etc.

172
Q

Coelom

A

Cavity within the lateral mesoderm

173
Q

Epimere

A

Division of lateral mesoderm

- Subdivides lateromedially into dermatome, myotome, sclerotome

174
Q

Mesomere

A

Division of lateral mesoderm

Becomes kidney, excretory and reproductive tracts

175
Q

Hypomere

A

Division of lateral mesoderm

  • Coelom expands further
  • Extends dorsomedially to enclose endoderm
  • Has somatic layer (becomes parietal serosa) & visceral layer (becomes visceral serosa, musculature, heart/blood vessels, lymph vessels, gonads)
176
Q

Dermatome

A

Division of epimere

  • Expands deep to ectoderm
  • Becomes dermis of integument, dermal muscles, dermal skeletal structrues
177
Q

Myotome

A

Division of epimere

  • Expands dorsally between ectoderm and sclerotome and ventrally between ectoderm and hypomere
  • Becomes epaxial and hypaxial musculature, appendicular skeleton
178
Q

Sclerotome

A

Division of epimere

  • Surrounds notochord and neural tube
  • Becomes vertebral column
179
Q

Integumet

A

(Skin)

  • Covering for the body of an organism
  • One of the largest organs
  • Used for protection and various other tasks such as respiration, temperature regulation, odour secretion, claws, hair, feathers, nails, horns, etc.
180
Q

Primary body tissues

A
  • Epithelial tissue
  • Connective tissue
  • Muscular tissue
  • Nervous tissue
181
Q

Epithelial Tissue

A

Layer(s) of cells that form a barrier

  • Covers exposed surfaces as part of skin
  • Lines body cavities - serosa, mucosa
  • Cells are tightly bound together
  • Apical exposed surface
  • Basal surface that attaches to underlying body structures via connective tissue
  • Usually avascular
  • Few, if any, nervous structures
182
Q

Dermis

A

One of two main layers of integument

  • Deep
  • Connective tissue
  • Formed mainly from dermatome
  • Usually relatively
  • Vascularized
  • Contains sensory receptors
183
Q

Epidermis

A

One of two main layers of integument

  • Superficial
  • Epithelial tissue
  • Formed from ectoderm
  • Usually relatively thin
  • Up to five layers: two main are stratum corneum & stratum basale
184
Q

Trends in Integument

A

Tends to increase in thickness from basal tp derived taxa

- Derived taxa can still have (semi)permeable

185
Q

Waterproofing Skin

A

Change nature of epidermis

  • Most superficial part becomes layer of dead, hardened cells
  • Incorporation of insoluble proteins (keratins)
  • Known as cornified or horny
186
Q

Hypodermis

A

A.K.A. superficial fascia

  • Deep to dermis
  • Mainly loose connective tissue, adipose connective tissue (fat)
187
Q

Stratum Corneum

A

Layer of epidermis

  • Most superficial layer
  • Thin
  • Consists of dead cells
188
Q

Stratum Basale

A

Layer of epidermis

  • Most deep layer
  • Relatively thick
  • Living; contains dividing cells
  • Most cells are keratinocytes, which are constantly being formed near the deep portion of s. basale
  • Keratinocytes pushed superficially as new ones formed: take on keratins, flatten, die
189
Q

Integument of Fishes

A
  • Skin is relatively thin
  • Epidermis made almost entirely of live cells
  • Few, if any, keratinized cells
  • Secretes mucus to help reduce drag, protect against bacteria (can contain various chemicals)
  • May form specialized keratinized structures in some (i.e. denticles in lamprey)
  • Scales found in more derived fishes formed partly from dermis and epidermis
190
Q

Scales

A

Can include up to three components of hard tissue:

  • Enamel (epidermal)
  • Dentine (dermal)
  • Bone (dermal)
191
Q

Placoid Scales

A

Scales present in sharks

  • No dermal bone
  • Scale is formed by dentine that projects through epidermis and is capped by enamel
192
Q

Dermal Bone

A

Formed from dermis

  • Present in bony fish
  • Forms plates that covered head and trunk of many ostracoderms and placoderms
  • Broken into dermal scales more posteriorly
193
Q

Bony Fish Scales

A

Formed by dermal bone

  • May be capped by enamel/dentine
  • Different kinds based on presence and relative proportions of enamel & dentine
194
Q

Cosmoid Scale

A

Scale formed from bone capped by enamel and dentine

- Seen in primitive sarcopterygians

195
Q

Ganoid Scale

A

Scale formed by bone that is sometimes capped by enamel

- Seen in primitive actinopterygians

196
Q

Teleost Scale

A

Scale that is formed solely by bone

- Seen in derived actinopterygians

197
Q

Integument of Amphibians

A

Thin skin, mostly all live cells

  • Thin stratum corneum provides some protection against mechanical abrasion and water loss
  • Scales absent except in some caeciians
  • Cutaneous respiration common and very important to some species
  • Capillaries extend into lower epidermis
  • Generally have mucus and poison glands
198
Q

Integument of Reptiles

A
  • Extensive keratinization
  • Dermal bone may be present, but is not generally associated with scales: osteoderms, gastralia
  • Few skin glands: mainly scent glands
199
Q

Reptilian Scales

A

Usually lack underlying dermal bone contribution
Epidermal scales
- Fold in the surface of epidermis
- May be modified into crests, spines or horns

200
Q

Osteoderms

A

Small pieces of dermal bone found under epidermal scales

- Seen in some turtle shell bones, crocodilians, some reptiles, extinct reptiles

201
Q

Gastralia

A

Collections of dermal bone within the abdominal region

202
Q

Epidermal Derivatives

A
  • Scales
  • Calluses
  • Nails/claws/hooves
  • Hair
  • Feathers
  • Baleen
  • Horns/antlers
  • Glands
203
Q

Nails, claws and hooves

A

Keratinized epidermal structures that tip the digits of amniotes

  • Protect digits
  • Used in climbing, defence, food gathering, etc.
204
Q

Horns & antlers

A

Cranial appendages that are widespread, esp. among mammals

- Used for defence, mate selection, dominance

205
Q

True Horn

A

Keratinized sheath supported by unbranched bony core/spike

  • Seen in cattle, antelope, goats, sheep
  • Not shed
206
Q

Antlers

A

Bone covered by velvety skin when immature

  • Usually confined to males
  • Shed annually
  • Tend to be branched
207
Q

Rhinoceros Horn

A

Keratinized epithelium made from fused, hairlike epidermal papillae

208
Q

Giraffe Horn

A

Cartilage core that has been ossified and covered by skin

209
Q

Hair

A

Mammalian feature

  • Epidermal sheath that sits in a follicle extending into the dermis
  • Dermal papilla supplies blood vessel
  • Hair grows basally
  • Cells are pushed up, become keratinized and die
210
Q

Arrector pili

A

Small muscle associated with a single hair follicle, erects hair

211
Q

Sebaceous glands

A

Glands associated with hair follicles

- Secretes oily substance to lubricate and protect hair

212
Q

Apocrine glands

A

Sweat glands used for chemical signalling and viscous secretion:

  • Mammary glands
  • Scent glands
213
Q

Glands

A

Epidermal structures found in all vertabrate clades

- Can be single celled or multicellular

214
Q

Uropygial Gland

A

Found in birds

  • Near base of tail
  • Secretes oily substance used in preening to protect feathers and repel water
215
Q

Salt Gland

A

Found in birds

  • On head of some
  • Secretes excess salt
216
Q

Sudoriferous Glands

A

Sweat glands in mammals, two kinds:

  • Eccrine
  • Apocrine
217
Q

Eccrine Glands

A

Sweat glands that secrete salt, urea, water

218
Q

Mammary Glands

A

Modified apocrine glands that secrete milk

219
Q

Scent Glands

A

Modified apocrine glands that secrete scents

- Used to mark territory, in individual recognition, courtship

220
Q

Skeleton

A

Composed of various kinds of connective tissue

221
Q

Connective Tissue

A
  • Formed by mesenchyme
  • Reinforces epithelia and other soft body tissues
  • Acts as a support for the body
  • Consists of cells scattered through a matrix (that is normally secreted by the cells)
  • Included cell types and materials determine structure, properties and function of the tissue
  • Main types are bone and cartilage
222
Q

Mesenchyme

A

Embryonic material mainly derived from epimere and hypomere

  • Network of cells that links outer tube and developing organs
  • Differentiates into connective tissue, most of the circulatory system, most muscles
223
Q

Bone Tissue

A
  • Heavily mineralized matrix
  • Extremely metabolically active
  • Osteocytes reside in lacunae within the matrix
  • Highly vascularized
  • Bone grows by expansion at surface
  • Lacunae stellate connect with other chambers
224
Q

Cartilage Tissue

A
  • Different cartilage types based on differing materials
  • Rigid, but not hard like bone
  • Chondrocytes reside in spherical, isolated lacunae
  • Avascular
  • Not very metabolically active
  • Grows by internal and surface expansion
225
Q

Bone vs Cartilage

A
  • Used to be thought that cartilage was primitive to bone, but not the case
  • Each tissue has properties that make it suitable for different things
  • Bone ideal for compression
  • Fibrous cartilage ideal for tension
226
Q

Parts of the Skeleton

A
  • Dermal Skeleton
  • Endoskeleton
  • Heterotopic Skeletal Elements
227
Q

Dermal Skeleton

A

Membranous bone that forms directly in connective tissue

  • Generally relatively superficial
  • Never performed by cartilage
  • E.g. bony plates in early fish, osteoderms, turtles, armadillos, parts of the skull
228
Q

Endoskeleton

A

Endochondral bone

  • Lies deeper than dermal
  • Always preformed by cartilage: replacement of embryonic cartilage by adult bony structure
  • Forms most bones of the body
  • Subdivided into somatic and visceral skeleton
229
Q

Somatic Skeleton

A

Subdivision of endoskeleton

  • Outer tube of body
  • Formed by somites
  • Two kinds: axial & appendicular
230
Q

Axial skeleton

A

Kind of somatic skeleton

- Forms most of skull, vertebral column, ribs

231
Q

Appendicular skeleton

A

Kind of somatic skeleton

- Forms paired appendages and limb girdles

232
Q

Visceral Skeleton

A

Subdivision of endoskeleton

  • Associated with branchial skeletons or derived from them
  • Formed by neurectoderm
233
Q

Heterotopic Skeletal Elements

A

Stray skeletal elements not associated with any other part of the skeleton

  • Not preformed in cartilage
  • E.g. sesamoid bones, small bone in diaphragm of camels, bone in septum of heart of ruminants, bone in upper eyelid of crocodile, baculum/os penis, os clitoris
234
Q

Diaphysis

A

Shaft of a long bone

235
Q

Epiphysis

A

Flared ends of a long bone

236
Q

Epiphyseal Line

A

Line separating the epiphysis from the disphysis

237
Q

Epiphyseal Plate

A

Layer of hyaline cartilage between the epiphysis and diaphysis of juveniles; ossified during development

238
Q

Periosteum

A

Fibrous connective tissue surrounding a bone

239
Q

Medullary Cavity

A

Hollow cavity within the diaphysis of a bone

240
Q

Endosteum

A

Connective tissue lining the cavities and spaces within bones

241
Q

Articular Cartilage

A

Cartilage found at the joints of bones

242
Q

Postcranial Skeleton

A

Skeletal structures of the body not including the head

  • Formed largely by endoskeletal elements
  • Mostly somatic
  • Mainly formed from mesenchyme
243
Q

Vertebral Column

A
  • Little muscular attachment in fishes; instead, most muscular force is exerted on myosepta
  • Ribs develop at the intersections of connective tissue, increasing efficiency of muscular effort
  • Precise rib formation depends on position
  • Dorsal ribs at intersection of myoseptum and HSS
  • Ventral ribs along coelomic cavity
244
Q

Vertebral Types

A
  • Amphiocoelous
  • Procoelous
  • Opisthocoelous
  • Acoelous
  • Heterocoelous
245
Q

Amphicoelous Vertebrae

A

Vertebrae that are concave at both ends of the centrum

- Typical of fishes and early tetrapods

246
Q

Procoelous Vertebrae

A

Vertebrae whose centra are concave anteriorly and convex posteriorly
- Typical of amphibians and reptiles

247
Q

Opisthocoelous Vertebrae

A

Vertebrae whose centra are concave posteriorly and convex anteriorly
- Typical of amphibians an reptiles

248
Q

Acoelous Vertebrae

A

Vertebrae whose centra are nearly flat at both ends

- Typical of the trunk of mammals and birds

249
Q

Heterocoelous Vertebrae

A

Vertebrae whose centra are saddle-shaped

- Typical of the neck vertebrae of birds

250
Q

Trends in Vertebral Evolution

A

Tendency is for there to be increased differentiation along the column in increasingly advanced forms

  • Fish: trunk & caudal
  • Tetrapods: 1+ articulates with pelvic girdle (sacral)
  • Advanced tetrapods: trunk vertebrae divided into cervical and dorsal
  • Mammals: dorsal vertebrae divided into thoracic and lumbar
251
Q

Embryology of Vertebrae

A

Develop from sclerotome of epimere

  • Initially segmentally arranged
  • Develop so they are intersegmentally arranged with respect to musculature
  • This ensures that musculature forms across adjacent vertebrae
  • Note: more variable in fish since myomeres exert force on myosepta not vertebrae
252
Q

Evolution of Postcranial Skeleton

A

Fish

  • Simple and small appendicular skeleton
  • Dermal skeleton mostly behind operculum dominates
  • Main element: cleithrum
  • Can’t bend neck
  • Pectoral > pelvic

Tetrapods

  • Large and more complex appendicular skeleton
  • Needed to keep body off ground and for propulsion
  • Cleithrum and clavicle reduced
  • New interclavicle lies between clavicles
  • Can move neck
  • Pectoral < pelvic
253
Q

Evolution of Pectoral Girdle

A
  • Initially formed from dermal and endoskeletal parts, with fin supported by endoskeletal
  • Endoskeletal portion expands, with scapular centre of ossification dominating
  • Only clavicle remains of dermal elements in mammals
  • Designed to absorb shock
254
Q

Evolution of Pelvic Girdle

A
  • Initially small and not attached to body
  • Begins to extend dorsally and fuses with sacral vertebra(e)
  • Now, hind limbs provide nearly all force in tetrapod locomotion
255
Q

Evolution of Posture

A
  • In early tetrapods, limbs were perpendicular to body axis and extended laterally (sprawled posture); move mainly by fish-like lateral movements
  • Manus and pes rotated to point forward; lateral bending of body propelled each forward
  • Limbs became tucked underneath body and more vertically aligned with parasagittal plane; efficient for-aft motion

EEB263 (6 decks)

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