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EEB263 > Quiz 3 > Flashcards

Quiz 3 Flashcards

0
Q

Annular Cartilage (lamprey)

A

Ring-like structure that forms the main skeletal element of the oral funnel

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1
Q

Chondrocranium (lamprey)

A

Formed from endocranial elements

Partly encloses the brain and sense organs and has cartilages that extend anteriorly to support the annular cartilage

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2
Q

Lingual Cartilage (lamprey)

A

Median cartilage that extends posteriorly from the annual cartilage, ventral to the chondrocranium
Supports the rasping tongue

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3
Q

Branchial Basket (lamprey)

A

Network of cartilages that extends posterior and connected to the chondrocranium

Supports the pharyngeal region

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4
Q

Pericardial Cartilage (lamprey)

A

Crescent-shaped cartilage at the posterior end of the branchial basket
- Lies on the posterior wall of the pericardial cavity

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5
Q

Main differences between lamprey and higher fish pharyngeal skeletons

A
  1. In lampreys, the structure is a connected network, not separate arches
  2. In lampreys, it is connected to the pericardial cartilage
  3. Branchial basket in lampreys lies superficially, just beneath the skin and lateral to the gills, rather than deep and medial to the gills
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6
Q

Notochord (lamprey)

A

Axial support for the body

Extends from beneath the posterior part of the brain to the tip of the tail

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7
Q

Arcualia

A

Representation of vertebrae in the lamprey

Lie dorsal to the notochord on either side of the spinal cord

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8
Q

Operculum

A

Large, triangular bony plate on the pharyngeal region, covers the gills

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9
Q

Preoperculum

A

J-shaped bone that lies anterior to the operculum

- Has a fringe of serrations on the posterior edge

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10
Q

Suboperculum

A

Bone that lies posteroventral to the operculum

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11
Q

Interoperculum

A

Rounded bone that lies ventral o the preoperculum

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12
Q

Branchial Arches (fish)

A

Lie deep to the opercular bones and support the gills

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13
Q

Frontal (fish)

A

Forms much of the skull roof and roofs the orbit

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14
Q

Parietal (fish)

A

Bone that lies posterior to the frontal

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15
Q

Lacrimal (fish)

A

Large (ish) bone that forms the anteroventral margin of the orbit

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16
Q

Maxilla (fish)

A

Slender bone that articulates to the anteroventral part of the lacrimal and the posterior part of the dentary; posterior end is embedded in soft tissue

Edentulate

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17
Q

Premaxilla (fish)

A

Most anterior bone of the upper jaw that articulates with the other premaxilla and the nasal and maxilla

Bears teeth on the anteroventral side

Is projected forward during opening of the mouth in derived actinopterygians

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18
Q

Nasal (fish)

A

Thin bone that extends anterior from the frontal

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19
Q

Comparison of bones in fish and other vertebrates

A

Should be noted that bones with the same name are not homologous with one another

  • Frontal in fish = parietal in tetrapods
  • Parietal in fish = postparietal in tetrapods
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20
Q

Suspensorium

A

Supports the jaw onto the rest of the skull in fishes

Consists of three bones:

  • Hyomandibular (dorsal)
  • Metapterygoid
  • Quadrate (ventral, articulates with lower jaw)
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21
Q

Anguloarticular

A

Forms most of the posterior end of the lower jaw, articulates with the quadrate of the upper jaw

Two parts:

  • Angular is large, flat, superficial component
  • Articular is medial and endochondral
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22
Q

Dentary (fish)

A

Can be seen anterior to the anguloarticular

Bears teeth

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23
Q

Retroarticular

A

Small endochondral ossification that lies posteroventrally on the lower jaw

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24
Q

Vertebral Column (Fish)

A

Consists of trunk and caudal vertebrae

  • Each vertebra has a centrum as its main body
  • All vertebrae have elongated dorsal neural spines
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25
Q

Caudal Vertebrae

A

Vertebrae of the tail

- Have elongated hemal spines ventrally

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26
Q

Trunk Vertebrae

A

Vertebrae anterior to the tail

- Bear ribs, both dorsal and ventral

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27
Q

Fish Ribs

A

Ventral Ribs

  • Prominent
  • Curve ventrally and form the myosepta adjacent to the body cavity

Dorsal Ribs

  • Extend laterally
  • More delicate, are attached via ligaments to the posterior surface of more anterior ventral ribs
  • Often missing in prepared specimens
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28
Q

Dorsal Fins

A

Anterior and Posterior

Supported by thin, elongated fin rays

  • Termed spines if they are ossified (all anterior rays, first two posterior)
  • Termed soft fin rays if not ossified and may branch distally (remaining posterior)
  • Each is supported at the base by a radial perygiophore
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29
Q

Radial Pterygiophore

A

Ventrally tapered bony element that underlies each fin ray in the anterior and posterior dorsal fins
- Extends ventrally into the connective tissue between two neural spines

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30
Q

Anal Fin

A

Lies along the midventral line, opposite to the posterior dorsal fin

  • First two fin rays are spines, remaining are soft rays
  • Radial pterygiophores support these rays by extending dorsally; anterior few fuse into large element that attaches to ventral rib(s) behind which hemal spines begin
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31
Q

Caudal Fin

A

Supported by soft fin rays that form a homocercal tail in the perch

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32
Q

Uroneurals

A

Last few neural spines

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33
Q

Hypurals

A

Flattened hemal spines of the last few caudal vertebrae, immediately posterior and ventral to the uroneurals

Provide most of the support for the fin rays of the caudal fin

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34
Q

Epurals

A

Modified neural spines that are unattached to vertebrae

Provide some support for the dorsal part of the caudal fin

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35
Q

Cleithrum

A

Dorsoventrally elongated bone that lies deep to the (sub)operculum and extends to the ventral midline to articulate with the opposite cleithrum

Main supporting element of the pectoral girdle

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36
Q

Supracleithrum

A

Articulates ventrally with the cleithrum and anterodorsally to the posttemporal

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37
Q

Posttemporal

A

Bone that is attached to the posterior end of the skull and articulates posteroventrally to the supracleithrum

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38
Q

Scapula

A

Large element of the shoulder girdle that lies dorsal to the procoracoid

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39
Q

Procoracoid

A

Large element of the shoulder girdle that lies ventral to the scapula

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40
Q

Postcleithrum

A

Elongated, triangular bone that extends dorsoventrally beneath the pectoral fin

  • Widened end lies deep to the cleithrum
  • Tapers ventrally, passing medial to the fin and extends towards the pelvic fin
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41
Q

Radial Pterygiophores (Pectoral Fin)

A

Extend from the scapula or procoracoid and distally articulate with the soft fin rays

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42
Q

Basipterygia

A

Paired triangular plates of bones that are oriented anteroposteriorly and form the pelvic girdle

  • Wide base located posteriorly
  • Tapers and passes dorsal to the articulation between the two cleithra anteriorly
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43
Q

Pelvic Fin

A

Fin rays each attach directly to the posterior end of a basipterygium
- Are all soft fin rays except for the medial ray

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44
Q

Premaxillae (mudpuppy)

A

Paired, most anterior part of the skull/upper jaw

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45
Q

Frontals (mudpuppy)

A

Paired, large bones immediately posterior to the premaxillae

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46
Q

Parietals (mudpuppy)

A

Paired, large bones posterior to the frontals

- Has long slender anterior projection that extends lateral to the frontals

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47
Q

Antorbital Processes (mudpuppy)

A

Paired, cartilaginous
Part of the chondrocranium
Project laterally near the anterior end of the parietal bones
- Project from the trabecular cartilage

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48
Q

Vomer (mudpuppy)

A

Modified to take on the role of the maxilla (which the mudpuppy lacks)
- Forms the anterolateral margin of the skull

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49
Q

Palatopterygoid (mudpuppy)

A

Forms the central part of the lateral margin of the skull

  • Posterior to the antorbital process
  • Compound element formed from the palatine and pterygoid
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50
Q

Prootic (mudpuppy)

A

Paired bone that contributes to the otic capsule

Lies lateral to the parietal, near the suture of the parietals and frontals

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51
Q

Opisthotic (mudpuppy)

A

Paired bone that contributes to the otic capsule

Lies posterior to the squamosal

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52
Q

Fenestra Ovalis (mudpuppy)

A

Contained within a cartilaginous region that lies between the prootic and opisthotic

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53
Q

Squamosal (mudpuppy)

A

Extends anterolaterally from the opisthotic to form the posterolateral margin of the skull

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54
Q

Quadrate (mudpuppy)

A

Articulates with the squamosal posteriorly and the palatopterygoid anteriorly

  • Inclines anteroventrally
  • Forms the jaw joint at its articulation with the mandible
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55
Q

Quadrate Cartilage (mudpuppy)

A

Cartilaginous bridge from the anterior end of the quadrate to the lateral margin of the parietal

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56
Q

Columella (mudpuppy)

A

Disc-shaped bone that lies anterior to the opisthotic and covers the cartilaginous region between the opisthotic and prootic

  • Covers the fenestra ovalis
  • Has a small stylus projecting from its lateral surface

Transmits vibrations to the inner ear

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57
Q

Foramen Magnum (mudpuppy)

A

Large opening on the posterior surface of the skull

- Spinal cord passes through it

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58
Q

Exoccipitals (mudpuppy)

A

Paired, form the posterior part of the skull, lateral and ventral to the foramen magnum
- Each contains an occipital condyle

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59
Q

Parasphenoid (mudpuppy)

A

Large, triangular, plate-like bone that forms most of the skull’s ventral surface

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60
Q

Ethmoid Plate (mudpuppy)

A

Cartilaginous plate anterior on the chondrocranium

- Visible anterior to the parasphenoid in ventral view

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61
Q

Chondrocranium (mudpuppy)

A

Consists of:

  • Basal plate
  • Exoccipital
  • Opisthotic
  • Synotic tectum
  • Prootic
  • Parachordal plate
  • Quadrate
  • Quadrate cartilage
  • Fenestra communis
  • Ethmoid plate
  • Trabecular horn
  • Antorbital process
  • Trabecular cartilage
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62
Q

Synotic Tectum

A

Thin cartilaginous bridge that connects the left and right otic capsules

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63
Q

Basal Plate (mudpuppy)

A

Cartilaginous bridge between the left and right exoccipitals

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64
Q

Parachordal Plate (mudpuppy)

A

Cartilaginous plate that extends anteriorly from each otic capsule

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65
Q

Trabecular Cartilages (mudpuppy)

A

Slennder, rod-like, cartilaginous elements extending anteriorly from the parachordal plates

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66
Q

Trabecular Horns (mudpuppy)

A

Small projections anterior to the ethmoid plate that lie between the nasal capsules

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67
Q

Meckel’s Cartilage (mudpuppy)

A

Cartilaginous structure that extends through the interior of the mandible

  • Mostly visible in medial view
  • Forms the articular surface for the quadrate of the upper jaw posteriorly
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69
Q

Mentomeckelian (mudpuppy)

A

Where Meckel’s Cartilage ossifies anteriorly into the mandibular symphysis

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70
Q

Dentary (mudpuppy)

A

Covers most of the lateral surface of Meckel’s cartilage

- Bears a long row of marginal teeth

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71
Q

Coronoid (mudpuppy)

A

Is exposed largely on the medial side of Meckel’s cartilage as well as a tiny exposure on the dorsolateral side
- Bears a short row of marginal teeth

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72
Q

Prearticular (mudpuppy)

A

Covers much of the posterior part of the mandible in medial view
- Tapers anteriorly as a wedge on the dentary

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73
Q

Hyoid Apparatus (mudpuppy)

A

Large, composed of the hyoid arch and parts of the first three branchial arches
- Hyoid arch is largest, anterior, supports the tongue

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74
Q

Hypohyal (mudpuppy)

A

Hyoid Arch

  • Small, median
  • Paired
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75
Q

Ceratohyal (mudpuppy)

A

Hyoid Arch

  • Lateral, elongated
  • Paired
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76
Q

Basibranchial 1 (mudpuppy)

A
  • Median

- Extends posterior from the hypohyals to the base of the first branchial arch

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77
Q

Branchial Arch 1 (mudpuppy)

A

Formed of:

  • Ceratobranchial 1 (paired, anterior)
  • Epibranchial 1 (paired, posterior)
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78
Q

Basibranchial 2 (mudpuppy)

A

Extends posteriorly from the left and right ceratobranchial 1

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79
Q

Ceratobranchial 2 (mudpuppy)

A

Tiny, nodular element at the base of epibranchial 2

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80
Q

Epibranchial 3 (mudpuppy)

A

Smallest epibranchial, lies posterior to epibranchial 2

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81
Q

Cervical Vertebra (mudpuppy)

A

Only one!

  • Articulates with the occipital condyles of the skull
  • Anteroventral process of the atlas projects into the foramen magnum
  • Posteriorly articulates with the first of the trunk vertebrae
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82
Q

Trunk Vertebrae (mudpuppy)

A

Lots of them

- Have transverse processes that extend from the centrum and articulate with small, Y-shaped ribs

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83
Q

Neural Canal (mudpuppy)

A

Passes dorsal to the centra in vertebrae

- Neural arch forms the roof of the canal; has a neural process

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84
Q

Prezygapophyses (mudpuppy)

A

Present on each vertebra for articulation with the preceding vertebra

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85
Q

Postzygapophyses (mudpuppy)

A

Present on each vertebra for articulation with the succeeding vertebra

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86
Q

Sacral Vertebra (mudpuppy)

A

Just one!

- Articulates to the pelvic girdle through its ribs

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87
Q

Caudal Vertebrae (mudpuppy)

A

Tail vertebrae

  • Each have a hemal arch
  • Most lack ribs, but still have transverse processes
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88
Q

Pectoral Girdle (mudpuppy)

A

Mainly cartilaginous

Left and right halves that overlap ventrally but don’t fuse

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89
Q

Scapula (mudpuppy)

A

Short bone with the suprascapular process dorsally

- On ventral side, have glenoid fossa, the depression that articulates with the forelimb

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90
Q

Procoracoid Cartilage (mudpuppy)

A

Slender, elongated, projects anteriorly from the glenoid fossa

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91
Q

Coracoid Cartilage (mudpuppy)

A

Broad, ventral, plate-like part of the pectoral girdle; they partly overlap

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92
Q

Humerus (mudpuppy)

A

Brachium of the forelimb

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93
Q

Radius (mudpuppy)

A

Anteromedial bone of the antebrachium on the forelimb

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94
Q

Ulna (mudpuppy)

A

Posterolateral bone of the antebrachium on the forelimb

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95
Q

Manus (mudpuppy)

A

Only has four digits

  • Six carpals
  • Four metacarpals
  • Phalanges
96
Q

Pelvic Girdle (mudpuppy)

A

Mainly cartilaginous

97
Q

Ilium (mudpuppy)

A

Ossified, extends ventrally from its articulation with the rib of the sacral vertebra to the acetabulum

98
Q

Acetabulum (mudpuppy)

A

Depression on the ilium that articulates with the hind limb

99
Q

Puboischiadic Plate (mudpuppy)

A

Ventral formation of the pelvic girdle

  • Pubic cartilage
  • Ischiadic cartilage
  • Ischium
100
Q

Pubic Cartilage (mudpuppy)

A

Elongated, triangular anterior portion of the puboischiadic plate

101
Q

Isciadic Cartilages (mudpuppy)

A

Posterior portion of the puboischiadic plate; contains a pair of ossified ischia

102
Q

Obturator Foramen (mudpuppy)

A

Foramina just anterior to each acetabulum

103
Q

Femur (mudpuppy)

A

Forms the thigh on the hindlimb

104
Q

Tibia (mudpuppy)

A

Anterior part of the crus on the hindlimb

105
Q

Fibula (mudpuppy)

A

Posterior part of the crus on the hindlimb

106
Q

Pes (mudpuppy)

A
  • Six tarsals, cartilaginous

- Four ossified digits (metatarsals and phalanges)

107
Q

Skull elements missing in anurans

A
  • Lacrimal
  • Prefrontal
  • Postfrontal
  • Opisthotic
108
Q

Interpterygoid Vacuities (frog)

A

Large paired openings on the ventral part of the skull (palate)

109
Q

Premaxilla (frog)

A

Small, median bone on the anterior portion of the skull

- Bears a single row of small teeth (premaxillary)

110
Q

Maxilla (frog)

A

Long paired bones that make up the lateral sides of the skull
- Bears a single row of small teeth (maxillary)

111
Q

Quadratojugal (frog)

A

Short paired bone on the posterolateral sides of the skull

112
Q

Vomer (frog)

A

Lies just posterior to the premaxillae

- Bears vomerine teeth

113
Q

Nasals (frog)

A

Paired, broad, flattened bones that meet each other at the dorsal midline
- Form the anterior part of the orbits through a narrow process that extends lateroventrally

114
Q

Nares (frog)

A

Lie anterior to each orbit

115
Q

Frontoparietals (frog)

A

Paired, elongated bones that meet along the dorsal midline and form much of the cranial roof

116
Q

Sphenethmoid (frog)

A

Forms most of the lateral and ventral sides of the braincase

  • Mostly tubular, with lateral expansion anteriorly
  • Small wedge can be seen dorsally wedged between the nasal and frontoparietal
117
Q

Palatines (frog)

A

Extend as transverse bars on either side of the sphenethmoid to reach the maxillae

118
Q

Parasphenoid (frog)

A

Cuciate bone on ventral side of skull

  • Anterior part of “stem” covers the sphenethmoid in ventral view
  • Posterior part of stem projects to the exoccipitals
  • Each transverse arm extends laterally towards a pterygoid
119
Q

Exoccipitals (frog)

A

Paired bones that form the posterior part of the skull

- Each has an occipital condyle ventrally

120
Q

Pterygoid (frog)

A

Paired, Y-shaped bone

  • Anterior arm connects with maxilla and nasal
  • Posterior arm curves gently laterally to contact the angle of the jaw
  • Medial arm is shortest and extends to the prootic and transverse arm of the parasphenoid
121
Q

Squamosal (frog)

A

Paired, T-shaped

  • Top of T slightly curved, extends diagonally
  • Long stem of T angled towards angle of the jaw
122
Q

Annular Cartilage (frog)

A

Cartilage that covers a large portion of the squamosal (if in tact) and supports the tymapanic membrane

123
Q

Quadrate (frog)

A

Main element that forms the upper part of the jaw joint

  • Usually cartilaginous in anurans
  • Usually covered laterally by the ventral squamosal and medially by the posterior arm of the pterygoid
124
Q

Prootics (frog)

A

Paired, irregularly-shaped bones that contain the inner ear

  • Between the squamosal, frontoparietal and exoccipital
  • Forms the posterior part of the orbit
  • Usually fuses with the exoccipital
125
Q

Optic foramen (frog)

A

Foramen on the medial side of the orbit

126
Q

Trigemial Foramen (frog)

A

Foramen on the posterior side of the orbit

- Passage for the trigeminal and facial nerves

127
Q

Foramen Ovale (frog)

A

Foramen beside the occipital condyle

  • Passage for the glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves
  • Formed by the prootic and exoccipital
128
Q

Mandible (frog)

A

Edentulate

- Meckel’s cartilage is covered by dentary anterolaterally and agulosplenial medial & posteriorly

129
Q

Missing mandibular bones in anurans (present in non-mammalian tetrapods)

A
  • Coronoid
  • Articular
  • Prearticular
130
Q

Dentary (frog)

A

Thin, flange-like

131
Q

Angulosplenial (frog)

A

Large

  • Posteromedial surface has medially pointed coronoid process
  • Articulates with the quadrate posteriorly
132
Q

Mentomeckelian (frog)

A

Ossifies the mandibular symphysis

133
Q

Hyoid Apparatus (frog)

A

X-shaped cartilaginous plate that lies on the floor of the oral cavity and supports the tongue and larynx

  • Two anterior cornua project anteriorly, curved
  • Two posterior cornua are bony rods that project posteriorly
134
Q

Vertebral Column (frog)

A

Only nine free vertebrae

  • First is the atlas
  • Last is a sacral vertebra
  • All have prominent transverse processes but no ribs
135
Q

Urostyle (frog)

A

Rod-like bone that extends posteriorly from the sacral vertebra
- Formed from the fusion of serveral postcranial vertebrae

136
Q

Suprascapula (frog)

A

Extends dorsomedially from the scapula

- Has a prominent, (usually) calcified cartilaginous portion medially

137
Q

Clavicles (frog)

A

Slender, extend almost directly medially from the scapula anterior to the procoracoid

138
Q

Procoracoid (frog)

A

Large paired bones that form a plate-like base to the pectoral girdle

139
Q

Omosternum (frog)

A

Rod-like bone that lies anterior to the clavicles

140
Q

Episternum (frog)

A

Cartilaginous extension anterior to the omosternum

141
Q

Sternum (frog)

A

Posterior to the procoracoids

142
Q

Xiphisternum (frog)

A

Cartilaginous extension posterior to the sternum

143
Q

Radio-Ulna (frog)

A

Fusion of the radius and ulna into a single element

144
Q

Prepollex/prehallux (frog)

A

Small bone that extends medially from the carpals/tarsals, may be a reduced metacarpal/tarsal

145
Q

Ilium (frog)

A

Elongated, anteriorly-directed element of the pelvic girdle that has a prominent iliac crest

146
Q

Ishium & Pubis (frog)

A

Form a semi-circle in lateral view

  • Ishium is more posterior
  • Part of the pelvic girdle
147
Q

Tibiofibula (frog)

A

Fusion of the tibia and fibula into a single element

148
Q

Tibiale (frog)

A

Elongated proximal tarsal

- Medial

149
Q

Fibulare (frog)

A

Elongated proximal tarsal

  • Lateral
  • Homologous with the calcaneum
150
Q

Early Tetrapod Skull

A

Consists of the skeletal structure of the head, minus the lower jaw

Complex fusion of

  • Dermal elements
  • Visceral endoskeletal elements
  • Somatic endoskeletal elements

Three parts

  1. Braincase
  2. Palatal Complex
  3. Skull roof
151
Q

Shark Skull

A

Consists of the chondrocranium (braincase) and palatoquadrate (palatal complex, upper jaw)

  • Dermal parts that would be present in other verts are missing
  • Posterior occipital region surrounds foramen magnum and includes occipital condyles
  • Otic capsules are formed from widening of the occipital region
  • Narrow orbital region (interorbital, sphenoidal)
  • Ethmoid region is anterior expansion, contains the nasal capsules
  • Articulates ventrally with the palatoquadrate
  • Basically an ensemble of separate cartilaginous centres, much like discrete bones in bony veterbrates
152
Q

Early Tetrapod Braincase

A

Mostly somatic endochondral bone, with some dermal bone mixed in

153
Q

Early Tetrapod Palatal Complex

A

Mostly dermal bone, with some visceral endochondral

154
Q

Early Tetrapod Skull Roof

A

Dorsal cover/shield for the skull

  • Consists entirely of dermal bone
  • Bones are usually paired
  • Nearly solid but with openings for the nostrils, eyes and pineal eye
  • Primitively notched posteriorly, in the ear region
  • Consists of 5 groups of bones
155
Q

Skull Roof Groups of Bones

A
  1. Tooth-Bearing Marginal Series
  2. Midline Series
  3. Circumorbital Series
  4. Temporal Series
  5. Cheek Series
156
Q

Tooth-Bearing Marginal Series (Skull Roof)

A

Forms the rim of the roof

  • Lateral edges
  • Bear teeth
157
Q

Midline Series (Skull Roof)

A

Paired adjacent to one another along the midline of the skull

158
Q

Circumorbital Series (Skull Roof)

A

Bones that surround the orbit

159
Q

Temporal Series (Skull Roof)

A

Bones that lie between the otic notch and the midline series

160
Q

Cheek Series (Skull Roof)

A

Bones that lie posterior to the orbit and below the otic notch
- Lateral to the temporal series

161
Q

Palatal Complex

A

Bones are all paired, but are more complex than the skull roof

  • Mostly dermal
  • Some visceral endochondral bone
  • Has major articulations with other skull structures (lower jaw and braincase in tetrapods)
162
Q

Dermal Bones (Palatal Complex)

A

Four pairs that form the roof of the oral cavity

  • May bear teeth in fishes or early tetrapods
  • Median pterygoid (largest, posterior to vomer)
  • Anterior Vomer
  • Lateral Palatine
  • Posterolateral Ectopterygoid
163
Q

Visceral Endochondral Bones (Palatal Complex)

A

Palatoquadrate is functionally replaced largely by dermal elements, but generally remains as a reduced structure

In tetrapods, two separate ossifications (4 in fishes):

  1. Quadrate
  2. Epipterygoid
164
Q

Quadrate

A

Small, posterior palatoquadrate bone

- Articulates with the lower jaw

165
Q

Epipterygoid

A

Large, anterior palatoquadrate bone

- Articulates with the braincase via the basisphenoid

166
Q

Braincase

A

Complex structure, with not all bones paired

  • Mostly somatic endochondral bone
  • One dermal bone (parasphenoid)
167
Q

Parasphenoid

A

Dermal bone of braincase

  • Forms in the skin on the roof of the oral cavity
  • Forms the ventral part of the braincase
  • Narrow anteriorly, wide posteriorly
168
Q

Somatic Endochondral Bone (Braincase)

A

Four bones form the occiput

  • Supraoccipital
  • Basioccipital
  • Paired exoccipitals
  • These usually fuse into a single occipital bone

Two paired bones associated with the otic region

  • Contain sacs and canals of inner ear
  • Opisthotic
  • Prootic

Basisphenoid

Sphenethmoid

169
Q

Supraoccipital

A

Bone that lies dorsal to the foramen magnum

170
Q

Basioccipital

A

Bone that lies ventral to the foramen magnum

171
Q

Exoccipital

A

Paired bones that lie on either side of the foramen magnum

172
Q

Opisthotic

A

Posterior bones forming the otic region

- Paired

173
Q

Prootic

A

Anterior bones forming the otic region

- Paired

174
Q

Basisphenoid

A

Bone that forms the floor of the cranial cavity

  • Median
  • Mostly ventral and anterior to the otic region
  • Mostly covered ventrally by the parasphenoid
  • Basipterygoid process on either side forms the basal articulation with the palatal complex
175
Q

Sphenethmoid

A

Bone that contains olfactory nerves

  • Median ossification in the sphenoid and ethmoid regions
  • Shaped like a trough
176
Q

Basal Amniote Skull

A
  • Very similar to an early tetrapod
  • Otic notch is closed
  • Intertemporal bones are lost and absent in reptiles
  • Other temporal bones are reduced and/or displaced posteriorly
  • Postparietal and tabular bones are present (later fused into the occipital in mammals)
  • Supratemporal present (not in mammals)
177
Q

Intermediate Stages in Skull Evolution

A

Two stages

  1. Early synapsids (represented by the pelycosaurs)
  2. Non-mammalian therapsids
  • Early pelycosaurs develop temporal fenestra, which is enlarged in therapsids
  • Quadratojugal is reduced and eventually lost
  • Squamosal differentiates into zygomatic and braincase parts
  • Loss of prefrontals, postfrontals and postorbitals
  • Integration of skull roof, palatal complex and braincase elements
  • Development of the secondary palate
178
Q

Early Synapsid Skull

A

Temporal fenestra has formed but isn’t exactly a hole yet since there is heavy connective tissue overlying it
- Brain is a little bigger than that of an anapsid

179
Q

Early Therapsid Skull

A

Temporal fenestra is larger than in the early synapsids

  • Cranial kinesis is lost
  • Brain is once again bigger
180
Q

Later Therapsid Skull

A

Both brain and the temporal fenestra is larger

  • Downgrowth of dermal bones
  • Upgrowth of mostly the alisphenoid
  • This encloses the brain
181
Q

Mammalian Skull

A

Brain is bigger and is now completely enclosed in bone

  • Muscles have gone from inside to outside the skull
  • Few original skull bones remain
  • Many of the same bones are present but with different surfaces than earlier forms
  • New growth underneath the muscles
182
Q

Development of the Secondary Palate

A
  • Premaxillae and maxillae downturn
  • Premaxillae and maxillae expand medially
  • Through this, they cover the original roof of the oral cavity
  • Palatines contribute to this posteriorly
  • Results in elongation of the choana (internal naris) so it opens posteriorly, near the trachea
183
Q

Functionality of the Secondary Palate

A
  • With a primary palate, the animal is required to stop breathing while eating
  • In order to maintain a constant body temperature and high metabolic rate, animals can’t stop breathing for long periods
  • Secondary palate allows for feeding while breathing
184
Q

Temporal Bone

A

Bone derived from the complex fusion of several elements

  • Squamosal
  • Petrosal
  • Ectotympanic
  • Entotympanic
  • Middle Ear Ossicles
185
Q

Squamosal

A

Large, flat dermal bone of the side of the brain

186
Q

Petrosal

A

Part of the braincase, forms from fusion of the prootic and opisthotic
- AKA periotic, petromastoid

187
Q

Ectotympanic

A

Old lower jaw

  • Angular
  • Dermal bone
188
Q

Entotympanic

A

New bone development in mammals

- From the braincase

189
Q

Middle Ear Ossicles

A

Malleus: originally the articular, dermal bone of the old lower jaw

Incus: originally the quadrate, endochondral bone of the palatal complex

Stapes: originally the hyomandibular, visceral endochondral bone

190
Q

Mammalian Sphenoid Region

A

Region where many cranial nerves emerge, has many different kinds of bones present

  • Complex embryologically
  • Formed from the presphenoid, basisphenoid, orbitosphenoid and alisphenoid
191
Q

Anterior Sphenoid Region

A

Begins as three separate elements that later fuse together (yet retain separate names)

  • Presphenoid ventrally
  • Obitosphenoid dorsally
  • From the braincase
  • Retain separate names due to different embryology and the fact that they aren’t seen externally at the same time in an adult
192
Q

Posterior Sphenoid Region

A
  • Basisphenoid ventrally (from the braincase)

- Alisphenoid dorsally (from epipterygoids in the palatal complex)

193
Q

Foramina on the Sphenoid

A

Orbitosphenoid

  • Optic
  • Orbital Fissure (on suture)

Alisphenoid

  • Orbital Fissure (on suture)
  • Foramen rotundum
  • Foramen ovale
194
Q

Muscle Categories

A

Histological
- Striated vs Smooth

Physiological
- Voluntary vs Involuntary

Organizational
- Somatic vs Visceral

Not always a strict distinction

195
Q

Somatic Muscles

A
  • Derived from the myotomes of somites
  • Always striated
  • Mostly voluntary
  • Innervated by somatic motor fibres
  • Form the appendages and outer part of the body wall
  • Axial and appendicular musculature
196
Q

Visceral Muscles

A
  • Derived largely from mesenchyme
  • Ultimately the lateral plate
  • Can be smooth or striated
  • Mostly involuntary
  • Innervated by visceral motor fibres
  • Mostly in the wall of the gut
  • Branchiomeric and smooth (gut) muscles
197
Q

Origin vs. Insertion

A

Describe the attachment of muscles

Two sets of definitions that are not comparable

198
Q

Origin

A

Proximal end of a muscle

OR

End of a muscle that moves the least during contraction

199
Q

Insertion

A

Distal end of a muscle

OR

End of a muscle that moves the most during contraction

200
Q

Axial vs Appendicular

A

If either end of a muscle attaches to part of an appendage (including the girdle) then it is considered appendicular

201
Q

Axial Musculature

A

Formed from epaxial and hypaxial muscles that are divided along a horizontal skeletogenous septum

  • Most of the body’s bulk in fish
  • Consists of a series of myomeres
  • Derived from myotomes, which is why they’re segmentally arranged
  • Complex zigzag pattern facilitates smooth curving action of the body
202
Q

Epaxial Musculature

A

Fish

  • Basically a single, segmented block
  • Dorsalis trunci

Tetrapods

  • Greatly reduced in volume as appendages take over
  • Restricted to between the neural and transverse processes

Amphibians

  • Still the dorsalis trunci
  • Segmented, but with little differentiation and subdivision

Reptiles
- Segmented, longitudinally subdivided into three parts

Mammals

  • Loses segmentation
  • Complex origin and insertion patterns
203
Q

Reptilian & Mammalian Expaxial Musculature

A

Subdivisions

  • Iliocostalis: lateral part that attaches to ribs
  • Longissimus dorsi: largest, dorsal to transverse processes
  • Transversospinalis: between the longissimus and neural spines
204
Q

Hypaxial Musculature

A

Fish

  • Smaller than epaxial
  • Basically a single unit

Tetrapods

  • Considerably reduced
  • Form thin muscular sheets around the flanks and belly
  • Support abdominal cavity and viscera
  • Most is complexly connected to ribs, complex subdivisions

Three dorsoventral groups

  1. Subvertebral Series
  2. Lateral (Flank) Series
  3. Ventral (Belly) Series

Sheets do not extend all the way to the ventral midline but insert via aponeuroses

205
Q

Subvertebral Series

A

Series of hypaxial musculature that lies dorsally and medially
- Underneath the transverse processes of the vertebrae

206
Q

Ventral Series

A

Rectus abdominis

  • Midventral
  • Between the sternum and pelvis
207
Q

Lateral Series

A

Lie between the rectus abdominis and the transverse processes

  • Primitively segmented
  • Fibres of the sheets are laid down in alternating directions
  • Thin sheets, strong

Three unbroken sheets

  • External oblique (anterodorsal - posteroventral)
  • Internal oblique (anteroventral - posterodorsal)
  • Transversus abdominis (dorsal - ventral)
208
Q

Aponeurosis

A

Sheet-like tendon that serves as an insertion for sheet muscles

  • Somewhat translucent, so can make out the underlying muscle fibres
  • Allow for same strength against breakage and torsion with less volume
  • Does not decrease strength of muscle contraction, only relative length of contraction
209
Q

Cranial Muscles

A

Muscles found in the head and neck (gill) region

Somatic Component

  • Axial musculature
  • Derived from myotomes, epimeres

Visceral Component

  • Branchiomeric musculature
  • Derived from neural crest cells
210
Q

Cranial Axial Musculature

A

Three groups

  • Extrinsic muscles of the eye
  • Epibranchial
  • Hypobranchial
211
Q

Extrinsic Eye Muscles

A

Cranial Axial Musculature (6)

  • Unchanged throughout vertebrate evolution
  • Formed from three pre-otic somites/myotomes

First Myotome

  • Ventral oblique
  • Medial rectus
  • Dorsal rectus
  • Ventral rectus
  • Innervated by the oculomotor nerve

Second Myotome

  • Dorsal oblique
  • Innervated by the trochlear nerve

Third Myotome

  • Posterior rectus (AKA lateral rectus)
  • Innervated by the abducens nerve
212
Q

Epibranchial Muscles

A

Anterior extension of the epaxial musculature

  • Gills, where present, lie between them
  • Helps to move and control the head and neck
  • Usually attaches to the skull
213
Q

Hypobranchial Muscles

A

Anterior extension of the hypaxial musculature

  • Mainly extends between shoulder girdle and jaw
  • Coracoarcuals (fish)
  • Throat muscles and tongue in tetrapods
214
Q

Coracoarcuals

A

Hypobranchial muscles in fishes

  • Big muscles
  • Ventral to the pericardial cavity
  • Open the jaw
215
Q

Tetrapod Hypobranchials

A
  • True tongue
  • Genioglossus
  • Geniohyoid
  • Styloglossus
  • Hyoglossus
  • Thyrohyoid
  • Sternohyoid
  • Sternothyroid
216
Q

Branchiomeric Musculature

A

Associated with the visceral arches

  • Formed from the mesenchyme
  • Visceral
  • Striated

Ancestral Vertebrates

  • Similar to that of the dogfish
  • Each arch is associated with a set of muscles

Higher Vertebrates

  • Gills have been lost
  • No longer proper “gut” muscles
  • Become jaw/face/shoulder muscles
217
Q

Basal Branchial Arch Muscles

A

Superficial constrictor and interbranchial form a continuous sheet that separates the pharyngeal slits

Dorsal and lateral interarcual stretch between the pharyngobranchial and the epibranchial

Levator extends to dorsal midline from the epibranchial

Adductor stretches between the epibranchial and the ceratobranchial

218
Q

Dogfish Branchial Arch Muscles

A

Also the condition of most other fish

- There are no individual levators, they have been fused into a single cucullaris that attaches to the pectoral girle

219
Q

Fish Branchial Arch Muscles

A
  • No superficial constrictors or interbranchials due to the presence of the operculum
  • Levators are often reduced and absent in teleosts
220
Q

Tetrapod “Branchial” Muscles

A

Due to lack of gills, no need for supporting muscles

  • Trapezius is derived from the cucullaris
  • Sternocleidomastoid
  • Most others disappear
  • A few remain as muscles of the larynx
221
Q

Trapezius

A

Muscle that arises from the midorsal line and inserts on the shoulder

222
Q

Sternocleidomastoid

A

Muscle that goes from the ventral part of the shoulder to the back of the skull

223
Q

Hyoid Arch Musculature

A
  • Innervated by the facial nerve
  • Most are lost because hyoid arch takes on the role of jaw support
  • Only the superficial constrictor and levator remain
  • This is complicated by the operculum in fishes
224
Q

Tetrapod Hyoid Arch Musculature

A
  • Superficial constrictor is modified into the sphincter colli
  • Depressor mandibulae
225
Q

Sphincter colli

A

Large sheet muscle that wraps around the neck

- In mammals, modified into facial muscles and helps form the jaw-opening muscles

226
Q

Depressor mandibulae

A

Opens the mouth in lower tetrapods

  • Goes from back of skull to back of lower jaw
  • Formed from the anterior part of the sphincter colli
227
Q

Mammalian Hyoid Arch Musculature

A
  • Depressor mandibulae is lost while the sphincter colli remains, but is highly modified into facial muscles used in expression
  • Buccinator
  • Digastric
228
Q

Buccinator

A

Cheek muscle

  • Keeps food in oral cavity while chewing
  • Non-mammals do not have cheeks
229
Q

Digastric

A

Jaw opening muscle in mammals

  • Has two “bellies”
  • Posterior one is formed from the sphincter colli
  • Anterior one is formed from the mylohyoid
  • Also functions in hyoid stuff
230
Q

Dogfish Mandibular Arch Musculature

A

Three muscle groups in dogfish:

  • Adductor mandibulae (closes mouth)
  • Dorsal levator (levator palatoquadrati)
  • Ventral muscles (intermandibularis)
231
Q

Tetrapod Mandibular Arch Musculature

A
  • Levators are lost once the upper jaw fuses to the braincase
  • Ventral muscles stay the same
  • Adductors are more complex, but are still a mass under the skull roof extending to the lower jaw
232
Q

Mammalian Mandibular Arch Musculature

A
  • Intermandibularis becomes the mylohyoid
  • Temporalis
  • Masseter
  • Pterygoids
  • Digastric
233
Q

Temporalis

A

Usually the largest muscle

- Extends from the temporal fossa to the coronoid procces of the lower jaw

234
Q

Masseter

A

Can be very large in some mammals

- Extends from the zygomatic arch to the angular process of the mandible

235
Q

Pterygoideus

A

Medial and lateral

  • Extend from the pterygoid region of the skull to the lower jaw
  • Deep division of adductor mass
  • Control medio-lateral motions of the jaws

EEB263 (6 decks)

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