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BIOL 2325 > quiz 4 > Flashcards

quiz 4 Flashcards

1
Q

What happens to pyruvate is there is oxygen present ( what does it become)

A

pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl-CoA

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2
Q

what happens to pyruvate if there is no oxygen present (what happens to it)

A

pyruvate is reduced in order to oxidize NADH back to NAD+

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3
Q

Is glycolysis oxygen dependent?

A

No, happens during aerobic and anaerobic respiration

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4
Q

what are the two types of fermentation

A

lactate fermentation and alcoholic fermentation

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5
Q

in lactate fermentation, what is pyruvate converted to?

A

lactate

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6
Q

where is lactate fermentation found in (3)

A

bacteria, plant tissues, skeletal muscle

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7
Q

what is lactate fermentation used in (3 foods)

A

buttermilk, yogurt, dill pickles

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8
Q

in alcoholic fermentation what does pyruvate convert to

A

first a CO2 is released and turned into acetaldehyde then into ethyl alcohol

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9
Q

where does alcoholic fermentation occur in (5)

A

plant tissues, invertebrates, protists, bacteria, and single celled fungi (yeasts)

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10
Q

what is alcoholic fermentation used in (2)

A

bread and alcoholic beverages

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11
Q

what is the difference between facultative anaerobes and strict anaerobes

A

facultative can switch between fermentation and oxidative pathways (depending on oxygen supply)
strict anaerobes only carry out fermentation as their only source of ATP bc they lack enzymes for oxidative phosphorylation

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12
Q

Is E.coli, found in human digestive tract, facultative or strict anaerobes

A

facultative

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13
Q

what are strict aerobes and whats an example in the body

A

cells that need oxygen to survive because they can’t live off fermentation, like vertebrate brain cells

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14
Q

what is abnormal glycolysis (and they generate large amounts of?) and name an example where it occurs

A

process of higher than normal rates of glycolysis, in most cancer cells, they generate large amounts of lactate

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15
Q

what is the warburg effect?

A

cancer cells tend to favor lactate fermentation over aerobic respiration

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16
Q

amino acids undergo (what) to remove the amino group

A

deamination

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17
Q

Alanine is converted into what

A

pyruvate

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18
Q

Aspartate is converted into what

A

oxaloacetate

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19
Q

glutamate is converted into what

A

alpha ketoglutarate

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20
Q

what is gluconeogenesis and does it use or produce atp

A

glucose can be made from intermediates like lactate or amino acids and it uses atp

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21
Q

how are fatty acids converted to acetyl groups?

A

Beta oxidation

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22
Q

a 6 carbon fatty acid yields what percent more energy than 6 carbon glucose

A

20 percent

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23
Q

CoA directs products of many oxidative pathways into (which process?)

A

citric acid cycle

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24
Q

Name the hypothetical timeline of evolution of metabolism (6)

A

Ability to store chemical energy in ATP
evolution of glycolysis (found in all living organisms)
anaerobic photosynthesis (using H2S)
use water in photosynthesis (brings o2 into atmosphere now)
evolution of nitrogen fixation
aerobic respiration evolved most recently

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25
Q

what is binary fission

A

prokaryotic cell division

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26
Q

is DNA in prokaryotes single or multiple, circular or linear, double stranded or single stranded

A

single, circular, double stranded DNA

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27
Q

where is the DNA of a prokaryote found

A

nucleoid

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28
Q

copying begins where? in prokaryotic cells

A

replication origin

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29
Q

does copying in prokaryotes occur bi directionally or uni directionally

A

bi directionally

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30
Q

how many genomes in each daughter cell in binary fission

A

one genome in each daughter cell

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31
Q

does the plasma membrane grow inwards during binary fission to separate the 2 daughter cells

A

yes

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32
Q

all eukaryotic cells store genetic information in (what formation)

A

chromosomes

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33
Q

how many chromosomes do human cells have (and how many identical pairs)

A

46 chromosomes and 23 nearly identical pairs

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34
Q

what are the 3 parts of the cell cycle

A

Cell growth and activity, including replication of DNA
Nuclear division (mitosis)
Division of cytoplasm (cytokinesis)

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35
Q

what is the difference between mitosis and meiosis

A

Mitosis: a growth process, divides replicated DNA equally with daughter cells with exact genetic copies of parent cells
Meiosis: process of sexual reproduction, produces daughter nuclei with half number of chromosomes of the parental nucleus (arrangement of genes on chromosomes are different from those of parent cell)

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36
Q

What is the role of molecular checks and balances in mitosis

A

to make sure there isn’t any error in DNA replication

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37
Q

does the cytoskeleton separate DNA molecules into the daughter cells

A

yes

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38
Q

is DNA linear in eukaryotes

A

yes

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39
Q

What is the role of proteins when combining with DNA

A

assist in packaging DNA and expression of individual genes

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40
Q

each chromosomes is composed of (how many) DNA molecules and its associated proteins

A

1

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41
Q

what are chromosomes made of?

A

DNA and proteins

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42
Q

How do we fit DNA into a nucleus

A

packed it down into shorter length by histone proteins

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43
Q

what are histone proteins

A

proteins to pack down and compact DNA

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44
Q

name a nonhistone protein

A

chromatin

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45
Q

what is a nucleosome

A

a particle where DNA winds around histone proteins

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46
Q

how is a 8 protein nucleosome core particle formed

A

DNA winds around histones H2A, H2B, H3 and H4

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47
Q

what connects nucleosomes

A

short linker segment of DNA links nucleosomes together

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48
Q

what do nucleosomes and linkers appear as under an electron microscope

A

beads on a string

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49
Q

why is it called the 10-nm chromatin fiber and to what factor does it compact DNA

A

named from the diameter of the beads and compacts DNA by a factor of 7

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50
Q

further packing occurs in what chromatin fiber after the 10-nm chromatin fiber

A

30-nm chromatin fiber

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51
Q

what happens in the 30-nm chromatin fiber

A

nucleosome and linker are bound by the fifth histone protein H1

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52
Q

what is the solenoid model

A

predicts nucleosomes spiral helically with about six nucleosomes per turn

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53
Q

does chromatin packing continue at higher level

A

yes it does

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54
Q

what is the difference between euchromatin and heterochromatin

A

euchromatin is loosely packed (highly expressed) and heterochromatin is dense packing (less expressed)

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55
Q

what are sister chromatids

A

2 copies of the chromosome within the replicated chromosome

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56
Q

where are sister chromatids connected and how are they held together

A

they are connected at the centromere and held together by sister chromatid cohesin until mitosis separates them

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57
Q

what is chromosome segregation

A

equal distribution of chromosomes into each of 2 daughter nuclei

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58
Q

what is a kinetochore

A

a complex of proteins with centromeres where microtubules of the spindle attach

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59
Q

what is ploidy

A

the number of chromosome sets in a cell or species

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60
Q

what is a haploid (and what coefficient to n)

A

1n, one copy of each type of chromosome in their nuclei

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61
Q

what type of organisms have haploid

A

microorganisms

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62
Q

what is a diploid (and what coefficient to n)

A

2n, 2 copies of each type of chromosome in their nuclei

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63
Q

what type of organisms have diploid

A

most eukaryotes

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64
Q

what is polyploid (and what coefficient to n)

A

3 or 4 complete sets of chromosomes in each cell

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65
Q

in what type of organisms have polyploid

A

plant species

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66
Q

2 chromosomes of each pair in a diploid cell are called

A

homologous chromosomes (one from the mother and one from the father)

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67
Q

homologous chromosomes have the (same/different) genes in the (same/different) order in the DNA of the chromosomes

A

same same

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68
Q

what is a karyotype

A

individual’s particular array of chromosomes

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69
Q

what is a diploid

A

cell possessing two copies of each chromosome (human body cells)

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70
Q

homologous chromosomes are made up of what?

A

sister chromatids joined at the centromere

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71
Q

what is a haploid and whats an example in the human karyotype

A

cell possessing a single copy of each chromosomes, human sex cells

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72
Q

what does interphase consist of

A

gap phase 1 (g1), synthesis (s), gap phase 2 (g2)

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73
Q

what is the only stage in the cell cycle that varies in length (where the others are uniform in length)

A

G1

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74
Q

G1 is the stage where many cell types stop dividing and are shunted into what phase

A

G0

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75
Q

can cells in G0 reenter g1

A

some can, some never resume the cell cycle

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76
Q

which phase is the period growth

A

g1

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77
Q

what happens in g1

A

cell makes proteins and other molecules that are required in S phase

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78
Q

what happens in s phase

A

DNA replication phase, chromosomes is copied and the copies are held together (sister chromatids)

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79
Q

what happens in the g2 phase

A

second growth phase. Cell makes more proteins and other molecules that are needed in the M phase

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80
Q

how much time is cell spent in each stage?

A

g1 is 10 hours
S is 9 hours
G2 is 4 hours
Mitosis is 1 hour

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81
Q

what are the stages of mitosis

A 
prophase
prometaphase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase
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82
Q

which phase in mitosis is cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis) in

A

telophase

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83
Q

mitosis requires the formation of a new apparatus called the??

A

spindle

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84
Q

what is the main microtubule organizing center (MTOC)

A

centrosome

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85
Q

centrosome contains a pair of what?

A

centrioles

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86
Q

are centrioles copied in dna replication

A

yes

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87
Q

what is an aster in animal spindles

A

microtubules extending from the centrosomes produce starlike arrays at the spindle tips that form the poles of the spindle in prophase

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88
Q

in what phase does the centriole start duplicating

A

s phase

89
Q

what stage does centrosomes start to separate the two centriole (old and new )

A

prophase

90
Q

at what stage do the centrosomes split up to opposite sides of the nucleus

A

late prophase

91
Q

what are the lines between the centrosomes that connect the two

A

microtubules

92
Q

what happens to the nuclear envelope as the centrosomes duplicates and splits up

A

it deteriorates or breaks down

93
Q

In prophase can you see chromosomes under a light microscope? Why or why not

A

yes you can because the chromosomes are condensed

94
Q

does condensation continue throughout prophase or does it stop in g2

A

condensation continues through out prophase

95
Q

what apparatus assembles in prophase

A

spindle apparatus

96
Q

what makes up the spindle appartus

A

2 centrosomes at opposite poles with asters (a radial array of microtubules)

97
Q

are there centrioles in plants

A

nope

98
Q

are there asters in plants

A

no

99
Q

in what phase does the nuclear envelop start to disintegrate

A

prophase

100
Q

in what phase does the nucleolus disappear

A

in prophase

101
Q

how do we decide when prophase ends and prometaphase starts (what structure indicates prometaphase has started)

A

the complete disassembly of the nuclear envelope

102
Q

what grows from centrosomes

A

spindle microtubules

103
Q

where do the spindle microtubules go to after projecting outwards from the opposite spindle poles

A

towards the center of the cell

104
Q

what is a kinetochore

A

the point where kinetochore microtubules bind to at the centrosome

105
Q

what is a kinetochore microtubule

A

microtubules that bind to the kinetochore

106
Q

what are nonkinetochore microtubules

A

microtubules that overlap those from the opposite spindle pole

107
Q

what is congression

A

when chromosomes begin to move to center of cell

108
Q

how does congression happen

A

assembly and disassembly o microtubules with the help of motor proteins at kinetochores

109
Q

what are the two type of spindles in mitosis

A

kinetochore microtubules and non kinetochore microtubules

110
Q

what happens in metaphase

A

sister chromatids are alligned into the middle of the cell

111
Q

what is the metaphase plate (and where is it at)

A

it is at the middle of the cell,(where the cell will divide) and it is the spindle midpoint where chromosomes are alligned

112
Q

an image of a complete set of metaphase chromosomes arranged to size and shape forms a ____

A

karyotype

113
Q

what stage do scientists usually do karyotypes

A

metaphase

114
Q

what 2 things during chromosome condensation allows a unique characteristic shape

A

length and centromere location

115
Q

what determines when anaphase starts and metaphase ends

A

begins when centromeres split

116
Q

what breaks in anaphase that allows separation of sister chromatids

A

cohesin proteins

117
Q

what are the 2 forms of movement in anaphase

A

Anaphase A and Anaphase B

118
Q

what is the difference between Anaphase A and Anaphase B

A

Anaphase A: motor proteins at spindle poles pull kinetochore microtubules polewards, and disassembling those into tubulin subunits
Anaphase B: Nonkinetochore microtubules elongate the cell by having motor proteins overlap the NKC MT walking in opposite directions. NKC MT also push poles apart by growing in length as they slide along.

119
Q

what indicates that telophase has started

A

spindle apparatus disassembles and chromosomes decondense and uncoil, returning to their extended state seen during interphase

120
Q

what forms around each set of sister chromatids at the end of telophase

A

nuclear envelope

121
Q

when does sister chromatids become chromosomes in mitosis

A

when they split up

122
Q

when does the nucleolus reappear

A

telophase

123
Q

RNA transcription resumes in what phase

A

telophase

124
Q

what is cytokinesis

A

the production of 2 daughter cells

125
Q

what is the furrow (contractile ring) in cytokinesis

A

girdles the cell and deepens until it cuts the cytoplasm into two parts

126
Q

a contractile ring occurs in what organisms (3)

A

animals, protists, fungi

127
Q

in plants, how do we divide the 2 upcoming daughter cells

A

a cell plate is formed and grows laterally until it divides the cytoplasm in two

128
Q

where does mitosis occur in some fungi and protists and what can we see if we look at the end of mitosis under an electron microsocope for those organisms

A

mitosis can occur in the nucleus in some fungi and protists so we’ll see fungi and protists with 2 nucleus

129
Q

what type of protein(s) causes furrowing

A

microfilaments and actin and myosin

130
Q

how is a cell wall formed in cytokinesis for plants cells

A

vesicles containing cell wall material congregate at the midpoint and fuse together and dump their contents together to form a cell wall to completely enclose the 2 cells with a continuous wall

131
Q

where do the vesciles in plant cytokinesis come from

A

ER and golgi complex

132
Q

what is the cell plate made of

A

the vesicle membranes

133
Q

Meiosis occurs in what kind of cells

A

germ line cells (sex cells, diploid cells) in the gonads, testes and ovaries

134
Q

what is produced at the end of meiosis

A

gametes (sperm and ova)

135
Q

what is gametogenesis

A

production of gametes

136
Q

how many sets of chromosomes do gametes have

A

1 set (haploid)

137
Q

what happens at fertilization

A

nuclei of an egg and sperm cell fuse and restore the chromosome number

138
Q

what is produced when an egg and sperm cell is fused

A

zygote

139
Q

what is the goal of meiosis

A

reduce genetic material by half

140
Q

does asexual reproduction generate different or identical offspring and through what process

A

identical through mitotic divisions

141
Q

what 2 cell division process mix genetic information into new combinations

A

meiosis and fertilization

142
Q

what are the two parts of the meiotic cycle

A

meiosis 1 and meiosis 2

143
Q

what are homologous chromosomes

A

a pair of chromosomes (one maternal and one paternal) that have the same order (ABCDE and abcde)

144
Q

duplicated chromosomes in the parental cell are distributed to (how many) daughter cells, each of which has ____ the number of chromosomes of the parental cell in meiosis

A

4 daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes

145
Q

in meiosis 1, when does dna replicate and when are chromosomal proteins duplicated

A

S phase, also known as premeiotic interphase

146
Q

what is crossing over and does it occur in meiosis 1 or meiosis 2

A

crossing over is the physical exchange of chromosome segments of homologous chromosome pairs and non sister chromatids. Occurs in meiosis 1

147
Q

Completion of meiosis 1 produces how many cells with ___ the diploid number of chromosomes, with each chromosome still consisting of ___ chromatids

A

2 cells with half the diploid number of chromosomes, with each chromosomes consisting of 2 chromatids

148
Q

meiosis 1 separates what and meiosis 2 separates what

A

meiosis 1 separates homologous chromosomes while meiosis 2 separates sister chromatids

149
Q

in meiosis 2, daugher chromosomes segregate into (how many) different cells, each with the (haploid or diploid) number of chromosomes

A

4 difference cells each with the haploid number of chromosomes

150
Q

what is synapsis

A

homologues pair along their length

151
Q

what is crossing over and what is it also caled

A

homologous recombination and its genetic exchange between homologous chromosomes

152
Q

what is reduction division

A

meiosis involves two successive divisions with no replication of genetic material between them

153
Q

humans have how many chromosomes in their diploid cells

A

46 chromosomes

154
Q

how many chromosomes pairs, and because of that what is the ploidy

A

23 homologous pairs (2n)

155
Q

a human egg or sperm cell contains how many chromosomes and therefore what is the ploidy

A

23 chromosomes (n)

156
Q

what is the structure that connects the 2 homologous chromosomes

A

synaptonemal complex

157
Q

at what stage or phase does recombination occur

A

Prophase 1

158
Q

what is the goal of recombination

A

to generate diversity

159
Q

what word best describes “homologous chromosomes exchange genes”

A

recombination

160
Q

what are alleles

A

different versions of a genes (A and a or B and b)

161
Q

a homologous pair has how many alleles, and are they the same or different

A

2 alleles and they can be the same or different

162
Q

are alleles combinations in each homologous pair unique for everyone? If not, name a counterexample

A

most of the time yes, except for identical siblings

163
Q

what causes the unique combination of alleles

A

mixing mechanisms

164
Q

what is the chiasmata

A

the physical point where the homologs non sister chromatids make physical contact for crossing over

165
Q

at what phase does recombination occur in

A

prophase of meiosis

166
Q

which meiotic division is termed the “reduction division”

A

Meiosis 1, the first meiotic division

167
Q

meiosis 1 results in 2 daughter cells with what inside them

A

one homologue from each chromosome pair

168
Q

is there any dna replication between meiotic divisions

A

no

169
Q

does the second meiotic division further reduce the number of chromosomes

A

no

170
Q

which stage does replicated chromosomes (sister chromatids) fold and condense in the nucleus

A

prophase 1

171
Q

what stage does synapsis occur

A

prophase 1

172
Q

what forms during synapsis, (other than the complex protein)

A

tetrads

173
Q

how do we see the chiasmata under a microscope

A

we see thickened spots

174
Q

what indicates that prometaphase 1 has started in meiosis

A

the nuclear envelope breaks down

175
Q

does the spindle enter the former nuclear area in prometaphase 1

A

yes

176
Q

are the sister chromatids removed in prometaphase 1

A

no

177
Q

are the homologs removed in prometaphase 1

A

no

178
Q

where do the kintochore microtubules attach to on the chromosomes in prometaphase 1

A

on the outside of each centromere at the kinetochore

179
Q

how do we know metaphase 1 has started in meiosis

A

the homologous pair are in the middle

180
Q

what holds the homologous pair together in metaphase

A

the terminal chiasmata

181
Q

in metaphase 1, homologues line up on the ___

A

metaphase plate

182
Q

is the orientation of each pair random in metaphase 1

A

yes

183
Q

what is the equation for orientation

A

2^n where n is the number of chromosome pairs

184
Q

what is the second major source of genetic variability in meiosis

A

independent assortment

185
Q

what is independent assortment

A

one member of homologous pair is randomly attacked to the spindle from one pole, the other member is attacked to the opposite pole

186
Q

how many different combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes can humans have

A

since there are 23 PAIRS, its 2^23

187
Q

Which phase describes “spindle fibers begin to shorten and pull whole centromeres towards poles” in meiosis

A

anaphase 1

188
Q

in anaphase 1, does each chromosome still have 2 sister chromatids

A

yes

189
Q

what reforms in telophase 1

A

nuclear membrane reforms around each daughter cell

190
Q

are the sister chromatids identical at the end of telophase 1

A

no due to crossing over

191
Q

what happens in interkinesis

A

the single spindle in meiosis 1 disassembles and microtubules reassemble into two new spindles for the second division

192
Q

describe prophase 2

A

chromosomes condense and spindle form

193
Q

prometaphase 2

A

nuclear envelop breaks down, spindle enters and microtubules attack to the two kinetochores of each chromosome

194
Q

describe metaphase 2

A

spindle microtubules align chromosomes on the metaphase plate

195
Q

describe anaphase 2

A

spindles separate 2 sister chromatids of each chromosome and pull them apart and now chromosomes segregate to two poles

196
Q

describe telophase 2

A

chromatids decondense to extended interphase

spindle disassembles and new nuclear envelop forms around chromatin

197
Q

how many (diploid/haploid) cells are made at the end of telophase 2

A

4 haploid cells are made

198
Q

what is nondisjunction

A

spindle fails to separate the homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids leading to one pole with both chromosomes and one with none

199
Q

in nondisjunction, zygotes have how many copies of a chromosome

A

3 copies

200
Q

how are sex chromosomes in male and female of the same species

A

males are xy pair and in the absence of ay chromosome, females have xx pair

201
Q

are the two x chromosomes in females fully homologous

A

yes

202
Q

are the xy chromosomes fully homologous

A

no, only partly homologous

203
Q

a gamete in the female (egg) may receive what kind of sex chromosome (x or y)

A

x

204
Q

a gamete in the male (sperm) may receive what kind of sex chromosome (x or y)

A

x OR Y, either

205
Q

what is the name of gametes in fungi algae or plants

A

spores

206
Q

what are the 3 sources of genetic variability

A

crossing over
independent assortment
fertilization

207
Q

can crossing over more than once in the same chromosome pair

A

yes

208
Q

name one exception where 2 children can have the same combination of chromosomes

A

identical twins which arise from mitotic division of a single fertilized egg

209
Q

in animals, which phase dominates the life cycle, diploid or haploid

A

diploid phase

210
Q

in all plants (and some algae and fungi) which stage dominates the life cycle

A

alternate between haploid and diploid, depend on organism

211
Q

in catabolism of proteins, proteins are broken down into what

A

amino acids

212
Q

what is deamination

A

remove amino group from amino acids

213
Q

3 phosphoglycerate can become which amino acids

A

serine, glycine, cysteine

214
Q

oxaloacetate can become which amino acids

A

aspartate, asparagine, methionine, theronine

215
Q

alpha ketoglutarate can become which amino acids

A

glutamate, glutamine, proline, arginine

216
Q

what phase in interphase are centrosomes duplicated

A

s phase

217
Q

how many of each histone per protein nucleosome

A

2 since its 4 histones and 8 protein nucleosome

218
Q

what can pyruvate turn into in amino acids

A

valine alanine and leucine

219
Q

what is an example of a strict anaerobe

A

botulism and tetanus

BIOL 2325 (9 decks)

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