Qualitative Research

Question 1

Nature of reality for a positivist (quantitative) vs constructivist (qualitative)

Answer 1

Positivist - a regular reality is “out there” and can be explained

Constructivist - reality is multiple and subjective, constructed by the individual

Question 2

Relationships for positivist (quantitative) vs constructivist (qualitative)

Answer 2

Positivist - researcher is independent

Constructivist - researcher interacts and co-creates findings with participants

Question 3

Values for positivist (quantitative) vs constructivist (qualitative)

Answer 3

Positivist - objective, values and biases are limited

Constructivist - subjectivity is valued

Question 4

Methods for data collection for positivist (quantitative) vs constructivist (qualitative)

Answer 4

Positivist - deductive, quantifiable and generalizable

Constructivist - inductive, narratives, in-depth understanding of certain groups

Question 5

What is qualitative research?

Answer 5

An approach that seeks to elucidate an in-depth understanding or exploration of a phenomenon of interest

Relying on non-numerical data points (eg. narratives, observations, reflections, and photos) to explain processes or patterns of human behaviours that may otherwise be difficult to quantify

Question 6

What is the purpose of qualitative research?

Answer 6

• Develop in-depth understanding and/or connections between constructs/concepts (eg. to build or explain a theory)
• Explore unique experiences of a certain phenomenon or circumstances
• Understand how a particular intervention has influenced or impacted an individual

Question 7

Qualitative study designs - descriptive

Answer 7

A common technique in nursing and healthcare to describe,
explore, understand, summarize a phenomenon of interest

Advantages: Flexible, simple, and be applied in many contexts

Disadvantages: Lack scientific rigor / qualitative position

Question 8

Qualitative study designs - phenomenology

Answer 8

Describing lived experiences → but what are lived experiences?
Schutz (1960) → lived experience is how an individual perceives or experience the world of everyday life through his or her interactions with objects, persons, and events
Purpose: Using interviews to understand an individual’s lived experience (e.g., living with COVID-19)

Question 9

Qualitative study designs - ethnography

Answer 9

A work that describes culture → researchers spend an extended duration immersed within the culture
* Living with the participants
* Observing their behaviours within their natural environment
* Documenting using photos, observations (field notes), and interviews
Purpose: To define and/or study culture (e.g., understanding caste system)

Question 10

Qualitative study designs - grounded theory

Answer 10

Understanding social processes with a goal of developing a theory
* Theory explains mechanisms (What? Why? How?)
* Symbolic interactionist approach → people behave and interact → they interpret or give meaning to certain symbols (e.g., dressing, communication)
* Purpose: Use interviews to understand these processes → make sense of how they interact (if they do), and what happens after

Question 11

Qualitative study designs - participatory action research

Answer 11

A form of social research (group-based) that involves people in a process of change:

• Researchers
• Members of the community /
  organization of interest
  Example: Understand a community’s world view → what are the circumstances that led to this situation?
  Allow community members to feel empowered, less threatened and increase ownership of the problem and results

Question 12

What are the common sampling strategies in qualitative research?

Answer 12

Non-probability:
Convenience sampling
Purposive sampling
Snowball sampling

Question 13

What is convenience sampling?

Answer 13

Selecting participants based on convenience (e.g., within existing network)

• Example: Evaluate effects of resilience programs
• Benefits: Readily available, easy to access and collect, and cost effective
• Drawbacks: Sampling bias, may not contribute meaningfully to your qualitative study

Question 14

What is purposive sampling?

Answer 14

Selecting participants based on certain characteristics (e.g., disease, exposure, received certain training)
- Example: Explore participants’ perception of resilience training
- Benefits: Meaningful contribution to the phenomenon of interest, in-depth understanding
- Drawbacks: Difficult to find participants

Question 15

What is snowball sampling?

Answer 15

Initial participants will help identify or recruit future participants (e.g., cases that are not easy to locate)
- Example: Exploring patients with HIV’s perception of resilience
- Benefits: Meaningful contribution to the phenomenon of interest, in-depth understanding
- Drawbacks: Difficult and slow recruitment, reliance on initial network

Question 16

Rationale behind the sample size of qualitative studies

Answer 16

Qualitative studies often look at ‘depth’ of data and has a relatively small sample size when compared to quantitative

Question 17

Determine the sample size for qualitative studies

Answer 17

Strategy 1: Previous similar studies
- Provide an approximate number → ethics application or study protocol

Strategy 2: Obtaining data saturation or information redundancy
- No new codes or ideas are emerging from the data → may not be necessary to continue data collection
- Can confirm saturation → adding 1-2 more interviews

Question 18

Qualitative data collection methods - interviews

Answer 18

Most common data collection tool to gather in-depth data
- Structured, semi-structured or unstructured interview guides
- Conducted face-to-face (either physically or virtually)
- Can be done individually or in groups (Focus group discussions)

• Advantages: Able to clarify ideas, identify non-verbal cues (e.g., emotions)
• Disadvantages: Time consuming, manpower intensive (transcribing), scheduling, challenging for new interviewers

Question 19

Qualitative data collection methods - instant messagin

Answer 19

Interviews that are done either synchronously or asynchronously via communicative tools such as Skype, Telegram
- Advantages: Easy to schedule, no need for transcription, can maintain anonymity
- Disadvantages: Unable to obtain non-verbal cue

Question 20

Qualitative data collection methods - surveys

Answer 20

Open-ended questions either physically or virtually
- Advantages: Inexpensive and relatively easier to administer
- Disadvantages: Unable to clarify with the participants, or get quality data

Question 21

Qualitative data collection methods - field notes

Answer 21

Researcher records their emotions, participants’ non-verbal expressions or situations that they observe to complement other research data (e.g., interview)

Question 22

Qualitative data collection methods - photos

Answer 22

Using photos or images
- Advantages: Allow participants to express their perceptions about topics that may be
difficult to verbalize (e.g., depicting heaven)
- Disadvantages: Participants may not do sufficient preparatory work (take photos) or may send you copyright images

Question 23

Qualitative data collection methods - observations

Answer 23

Researcher spends time in the environment of interest to observe and record their findings

Question 24

Qualitative data collection methods - open source

Answer 24

Forums, chatrooms

Question 25

Sensitivity of the topic in qualitative research

Answer 25

Conforming to societal norms?

E.g., Talking about suicide, death and dying can be challenging
- E.g., Topics relating to sexual orientation may be uncomfortable within
Singapore
- Possible strategies: Purposive sampling and snowball sampling to identify
suitable participants, using instant messaging may be helpful

Question 26

Participant involvement in qualitative research

Answer 26

Individual or group? Schedule?

E.g., Participants feel safe enough to provide their responses within a group
E.g., Nurses often have shift work, they may not be able to commit to a
common group timing
- Possible strategies: Using individual virtual interviews may be helpful to
collecting their responses

Question 27

Types of data in qualitative research

Answer 27

Interviews? Observations?

Does interviewing lead to socially desirable responses?
* E.g., Do nurses count the respiratory rate when taking vital signs?
* Potential strategies: Covert observations, or instant messaging techniques
may allow participants to be more forthcoming

Question 28

Feasibility in qualitative research

Answer 28

What is available? Is it possible? Time frame?

• E.g., I want to interview people who vape, but vaping is illegal in Singapore
• E.g., I want to interview all PhD nursing students around the world
• Potential strategies: Use instant messaging, or open-ended survey
  questions can be helpful

Question 29

Data analysis in qualitative research - overview

Answer 29

preparation -> preliminary coding -> developing codebook -> code all transcripts -> group all codes -> synthesise and create new coherent story

Question 30

Data analysis - inductive coding = data driven

Answer 30

• “Bottom-up approach”
• Codes and themes are
  developed based on
  the findings
• Advantages:
  Generate new insights
• Disadvantages:
  Reliance on researcher
  → biasness or
  subjectivity
• Example: Thematic
  analysis

Question 31

Data analysis - deductive coding = analyst driven

Answer 31

• ”Top-down approach”
• A pre-set framework
  or theory is used to
  guide the analysis
• Advantages: Easier
  to adopt for a new
  analyst
• Disadvantages: Omit
  or ignore emerging
  insights of relevance
• Examples: Content
  analysis or framework
  analysis

Question 32

Data analysis in qualitative research - thematic analysis steps

Answer 32

Step 1
* Reviewing all transcripts for verbatim accuracy
* Immersing in data by reading all transcripts

Step 2
* Generating initial codes (highlighting in different colours)
* Developing a code book

Step 3
* Grouping codes with similar meanings
* Searching for potential themes and subthemes

Step 4 and 5
* Reviewing and naming
themes and subthemes

Step 6
* Producing the report using
both visual and narratives -> subheaders for themes and including quotations

Question 33

Data analysis in qualitative research - framework analysis

Answer 33

Deductive analysis method
* Using a pre-determined theoretical framework or conceptual
framework to guide the data analysis
* Example: Exploring participants’ perception of a resilience
program

Research questions
* What were the participants’
experiences of the RISE program?
* What were the contextual factors?
* How did the RISE program impact
participants’ resilience?

Why framework analysis?
* Guided approach to draw out
specific information to support
the refinement of an intervention
* Understand the impacts of the
intervention

Question 34

Data analysis in qualitative research - content analysis

Answer 34

Example: You want to explore participants’ perception of the various
features in the resilience training
Unit of analysis: Individual interview transcripts
Categories: Features of the resilience program

Question 35

Trustworthiness strategies in qualitative research
(the criterion - the test)

Answer 35

truth value - credibility
applicability - transferability
consistency - dependability
neutrality - confirmability

Question 36

Explain:
Trustworthiness strategy - credibility

Answer 36

Confidence in the truth of the findings
* Ensure an accurate description or interpretations of human experience that individuals with similar experiences would recognize these descriptions

Eg:
* Prolonged engagement
* Member checking
* Interview technique
* Reflexivity journal
* More than one data analyst

Question 37

Explain:
Trustworthiness strategy - transferability

Answer 37

Extent to which a reader
can transfer the findings to
another similar situation or
context

Eg:
* Thick description of
the sample, setting,
and context

Question 38

Explain:
Trustworthiness strategy - dependability

Answer 38

Stability of the findings
across time
* Ensure that research can be
audited; variations can be
traced back to identifiable
sources

Eg:
* Dense description of
research methods
* Triangulation
* Peer examination
* Audit trail of
decision-making
process

Question 39

Explain:
Trustworthiness strategy - confirmability

Answer 39

Stability of the findings
across contexts and
population
* Neutrality of the data as
opposed to the researcher

Eg:
* Triangulation
* Reflexivity
* Peer debriefing

Question 40

What are the common guidelines for qualitative research?

Answer 40

Consolidated criteria for Reporting Qualitative research checklist (COREQ)

Enhancing Transparency in Reporting the synthesis of Qualitative research checklist (ENTREQ)