Qualitative Research Flashcards

1
Q

Nature of reality for a positivist (quantitative) vs constructivist (qualitative)

A

Positivist - a regular reality is “out there” and can be explained

Constructivist - reality is multiple and subjective, constructed by the individual

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2
Q

Relationships for positivist (quantitative) vs constructivist (qualitative)

A

Positivist - researcher is independent

Constructivist - researcher interacts and co-creates findings with participants

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3
Q

Values for positivist (quantitative) vs constructivist (qualitative)

A

Positivist - objective, values and biases are limited

Constructivist - subjectivity is valued

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4
Q

Methods for data collection for positivist (quantitative) vs constructivist (qualitative)

A

Positivist - deductive, quantifiable and generalizable

Constructivist - inductive, narratives, in-depth understanding of certain groups

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5
Q

What is qualitative research?

A

An approach that seeks to elucidate an in-depth understanding or exploration of a phenomenon of interest

Relying on non-numerical data points (eg. narratives, observations, reflections, and photos) to explain processes or patterns of human behaviours that may otherwise be difficult to quantify

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6
Q

What is the purpose of qualitative research?

A
  • Develop in-depth understanding and/or connections between constructs/concepts (eg. to build or explain a theory)
  • Explore unique experiences of a certain phenomenon or circumstances
  • Understand how a particular intervention has influenced or impacted an individual
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7
Q

Qualitative study designs - descriptive

A

A common technique in nursing and healthcare to describe,
explore, understand, summarize a phenomenon of interest

Advantages: Flexible, simple, and be applied in many contexts

Disadvantages: Lack scientific rigor / qualitative position

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8
Q

Qualitative study designs - phenomenology

A

Describing lived experiences → but what are lived experiences?
Schutz (1960) → lived experience is how an individual perceives or experience the world of everyday life through his or her interactions with objects, persons, and events
Purpose: Using interviews to understand an individual’s lived experience (e.g., living with COVID-19)

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9
Q

Qualitative study designs - ethnography

A

A work that describes culture → researchers spend an extended duration immersed within the culture
* Living with the participants
* Observing their behaviours within their natural environment
* Documenting using photos, observations (field notes), and interviews
Purpose: To define and/or study culture (e.g., understanding caste system)

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10
Q

Qualitative study designs - grounded theory

A

Understanding social processes with a goal of developing a theory
* Theory explains mechanisms (What? Why? How?)
* Symbolic interactionist approach → people behave and interact → they interpret or give meaning to certain symbols (e.g., dressing, communication)
* Purpose: Use interviews to understand these processes → make sense of how they interact (if they do), and what happens after

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11
Q

Qualitative study designs - participatory action research

A

A form of social research (group-based) that involves people in a process of change:

  • Researchers
  • Members of the community /
    organization of interest
    Example: Understand a community’s world view → what are the circumstances that led to this situation?
    Allow community members to feel empowered, less threatened and increase ownership of the problem and results
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12
Q

What are the common sampling strategies in qualitative research?

A

Non-probability:
Convenience sampling
Purposive sampling
Snowball sampling

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13
Q

What is convenience sampling?

A

Selecting participants based on convenience (e.g., within existing network)

  • Example: Evaluate effects of resilience programs
  • Benefits: Readily available, easy to access and collect, and cost effective
  • Drawbacks: Sampling bias, may not contribute meaningfully to your qualitative study
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14
Q

What is purposive sampling?

A

Selecting participants based on certain characteristics (e.g., disease, exposure, received certain training)
- Example: Explore participants’ perception of resilience training
- Benefits: Meaningful contribution to the phenomenon of interest, in-depth understanding
- Drawbacks: Difficult to find participants

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15
Q

What is snowball sampling?

A

Initial participants will help identify or recruit future participants (e.g., cases that are not easy to locate)
- Example: Exploring patients with HIV’s perception of resilience
- Benefits: Meaningful contribution to the phenomenon of interest, in-depth understanding
- Drawbacks: Difficult and slow recruitment, reliance on initial network

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16
Q

Rationale behind the sample size of qualitative studies

A

Qualitative studies often look at ‘depth’ of data and has a relatively small sample size when compared to quantitative

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17
Q

Determine the sample size for qualitative studies

A

Strategy 1: Previous similar studies
- Provide an approximate number → ethics application or study protocol

Strategy 2: Obtaining data saturation or information redundancy
- No new codes or ideas are emerging from the data → may not be necessary to continue data collection
- Can confirm saturation → adding 1-2 more interviews

18
Q

Qualitative data collection methods - interviews

A

Most common data collection tool to gather in-depth data
- Structured, semi-structured or unstructured interview guides
- Conducted face-to-face (either physically or virtually)
- Can be done individually or in groups (Focus group discussions)

  • Advantages: Able to clarify ideas, identify non-verbal cues (e.g., emotions)
  • Disadvantages: Time consuming, manpower intensive (transcribing), scheduling, challenging for new interviewers
19
Q

Qualitative data collection methods - instant messagin

A

Interviews that are done either synchronously or asynchronously via communicative tools such as Skype, Telegram
- Advantages: Easy to schedule, no need for transcription, can maintain anonymity
- Disadvantages: Unable to obtain non-verbal cue

20
Q

Qualitative data collection methods - surveys

A

Open-ended questions either physically or virtually
- Advantages: Inexpensive and relatively easier to administer
- Disadvantages: Unable to clarify with the participants, or get quality data

21
Q

Qualitative data collection methods - field notes

A

Researcher records their emotions, participants’ non-verbal expressions or situations that they observe to complement other research data (e.g., interview)

22
Q

Qualitative data collection methods - photos

A

Using photos or images
- Advantages: Allow participants to express their perceptions about topics that may be
difficult to verbalize (e.g., depicting heaven)
- Disadvantages: Participants may not do sufficient preparatory work (take photos) or may send you copyright images

23
Q

Qualitative data collection methods - observations

A

Researcher spends time in the environment of interest to observe and record their findings

24
Q

Qualitative data collection methods - open source

A

Forums, chatrooms

25
Sensitivity of the topic in qualitative research
Conforming to societal norms? E.g., Talking about suicide, death and dying can be challenging - E.g., Topics relating to sexual orientation may be uncomfortable within Singapore - Possible strategies: Purposive sampling and snowball sampling to identify suitable participants, using instant messaging may be helpful
26
Participant involvement in qualitative research
Individual or group? Schedule? E.g., Participants feel safe enough to provide their responses within a group E.g., Nurses often have shift work, they may not be able to commit to a common group timing - Possible strategies: Using individual virtual interviews may be helpful to collecting their responses
27
Types of data in qualitative research
Interviews? Observations? Does interviewing lead to socially desirable responses? * E.g., Do nurses count the respiratory rate when taking vital signs? * Potential strategies: Covert observations, or instant messaging techniques may allow participants to be more forthcoming
28
Feasibility in qualitative research
What is available? Is it possible? Time frame? * E.g., I want to interview people who vape, but vaping is illegal in Singapore * E.g., I want to interview all PhD nursing students around the world * Potential strategies: Use instant messaging, or open-ended survey questions can be helpful
29
Data analysis in qualitative research - overview
preparation -> preliminary coding -> developing codebook -> code all transcripts -> group all codes -> synthesise and create new coherent story
30
Data analysis - inductive coding = data driven
* “Bottom-up approach” * Codes and themes are developed based on the findings * Advantages: Generate new insights * Disadvantages: Reliance on researcher → biasness or subjectivity * Example: Thematic analysis
31
Data analysis - deductive coding = analyst driven
* ”Top-down approach” * A pre-set framework or theory is used to guide the analysis * Advantages: Easier to adopt for a new analyst * Disadvantages: Omit or ignore emerging insights of relevance * Examples: Content analysis or framework analysis
32
Data analysis in qualitative research - thematic analysis steps
Step 1 * Reviewing all transcripts for verbatim accuracy * Immersing in data by reading all transcripts Step 2 * Generating initial codes (highlighting in different colours) * Developing a code book Step 3 * Grouping codes with similar meanings * Searching for potential themes and subthemes Step 4 and 5 * Reviewing and naming themes and subthemes Step 6 * Producing the report using both visual and narratives -> subheaders for themes and including quotations
33
Data analysis in qualitative research - framework analysis
Deductive analysis method * Using a pre-determined theoretical framework or conceptual framework to guide the data analysis * Example: Exploring participants’ perception of a resilience program Research questions * What were the participants’ experiences of the RISE program? * What were the contextual factors? * How did the RISE program impact participants’ resilience? Why framework analysis? * Guided approach to draw out specific information to support the refinement of an intervention * Understand the impacts of the intervention
34
Data analysis in qualitative research - content analysis
Example: You want to explore participants’ perception of the various features in the resilience training Unit of analysis: Individual interview transcripts Categories: Features of the resilience program
35
Trustworthiness strategies in qualitative research (the criterion - the test)
truth value - credibility applicability - transferability consistency - dependability neutrality - confirmability
36
Explain: Trustworthiness strategy - credibility
Confidence in the truth of the findings * Ensure an accurate description or interpretations of human experience that individuals with similar experiences would recognize these descriptions Eg: * Prolonged engagement * Member checking * Interview technique * Reflexivity journal * More than one data analyst
37
Explain: Trustworthiness strategy - transferability
Extent to which a reader can transfer the findings to another similar situation or context Eg: * Thick description of the sample, setting, and context
38
Explain: Trustworthiness strategy - dependability
Stability of the findings across time * Ensure that research can be audited; variations can be traced back to identifiable sources Eg: * Dense description of research methods * Triangulation * Peer examination * Audit trail of decision-making process
39
Explain: Trustworthiness strategy - confirmability
Stability of the findings across contexts and population * Neutrality of the data as opposed to the researcher Eg: * Triangulation * Reflexivity * Peer debriefing
40
What are the common guidelines for qualitative research?
Consolidated criteria for Reporting Qualitative research checklist (COREQ) Enhancing Transparency in Reporting the synthesis of Qualitative research checklist (ENTREQ)