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a&p 2 > Pt 2 of Test 2 > Flashcards

Pt 2 of Test 2 Flashcards

1
Q

what are the 2 main parts of the immune system

A
  1. nonspecific- innate immunity
  2. specific- adaptive immunity
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2
Q

are microbes abundant or scarce

A

very abundant, in the environment and as inhabitants of our bodies and use to make foods and drugs, and important as decomposers to recycle nutrients

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3
Q

very few microbes cause disease in humans, what do we call those and are they all bad

A

pathogens, no some are good

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4
Q

what kind of organisms are bacteria

A

single-celled prokaryotes

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5
Q

do bacteria have cell walls

A

yes most of them do

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6
Q

where do bacteria store their DNA

A

in a single chromosome

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7
Q

what are the accessory rings of DNA in bacteria called

A

plasmids

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8
Q

how do bacteria reproduce

A

binary fission- 2 identical cells to the original

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9
Q

what can bacteria create

A

toxins (which is a means of protecting ourselves)

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10
Q

how do toxins in bacteria work

A

they set up shop in tissues to find food, consume tissues, release byproducts, etc and since they are potentially toxic, we want to get rid of them from bloodstream because they will try to consume our cellular parts like strep, staph

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11
Q

what are viruses

A

small, nonliving obligate parasites

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12
Q

how can viruses reproduce

A

inside of a host cell

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13
Q

are viruses acellular or cellular

A

acellular (do not have cells)

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14
Q

all viruses have an outer protein coat called a _____ and has nucleic acid RNA or DNA inside

A

capsid

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15
Q

are viruses specific

A

yes they are specific to the cell type they will attach to and enterh

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16
Q

what exactly do viruses do

A

hijack host cell machinery and make them stop doing their job and produce viral particles

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17
Q

examples of viruses

A

COVID, cold and flu, measles, etc

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18
Q

what is immunity

A

resistance to, or ability to combat disease

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19
Q

which type of immunity of the immune system is functional without previous exposure

A

innate- nonspecific immunity

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20
Q

which type of immunity of the immune system is based on memory and can be amplified and initiated by exposure

A

adaptive- specific immunity

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21
Q

what does the first line of defense consist of

A

surface barriers such as skin, mucous membranes

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22
Q

when is the 2nd line of defense activated

A

when surface protection is breached

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23
Q

what is a tell-tale sign of innate defense activation (activation of 2nd line defense)

A

inflammation

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24
Q

what line of defense is the “special ops” forces of your body

A

3rd line (adaptive-specific)

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25
Q

what does the adaptive- specific immunity exactly do

A

attack specific foreign substances (slower to mount defense but much more effective) you will not notice you came in contact with pathogen

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26
Q

which immune system are macrophages more involved in

A

innate-nonspecific immunity

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27
Q

how is skin a good surface barrier and 1st line of defense in innate-nonspecific defenses

A

it has a thick, heavily keratinized membrane that is tough and resistant to chemicals such as bacterial enzymes and toxins. very tough to get through

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28
Q

how are mucous membranes a good surface barrier and 1st line of defense in innnate-nonspecific defenses

A

these membranes produce mucous (bc they are open to exterior) which traps potential pathogens and have cilia and hairs that help trap invaders and move debris out. (mucous itself traps microorganisms in digestive and respiratory passages)

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29
Q

what is the ph of the skin usually

A

acidic (3-5)

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30
Q

talk about acid secretions from the skin membranes

A

acidic secretions from skin inhibits bacterials growth and aids in protection

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31
Q

an example of surface barriers (skin and mucous membranes) being a direct toxicity to bacteria

A

dermicidin

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32
Q

how is the stomach also good at protecting us in the 1st line of defense in skin and mucous membranes

A

it secretes hydrochloric acid and enymes that kill microorganisms

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33
Q

saliva and tears also contain what in skin and mucous membranes that destroys bacteria

A

lysozymes

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34
Q

what is natural flora

A

bacterial lines hanging out for a long time. many genetic generations? do not cause a disease?

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35
Q

what are phagocytes

A

phagocytic cells with a voracious appetite for foreign matter

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36
Q

what are the 2 main leukocytes involved in innate defenses in phagocytes

A
  1. neutrophils
  2. monocytes
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37
Q

what exactly do neutrophils do for phagocytosis

A

cruise around connective tissue and look for potential problems

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38
Q

what are the 2 methods of neutrophils killing bacteria

A
  1. simple- phagocytosis and digestion
  2. complex- cloud of bactericidal chemicals
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39
Q

what is the complex method of neutrophils killing bacteria in phagocytosis

A
  1. creates a killing zone when bacteria are detected in close proximity. (degranulation happens where lysosomes are released into tissue fluid once detection has happened)
  2. respiratory burst- neutrophils rapidly absorb oxygen and can burst with bleach and free radicals (toxic chemicals)
    HOWEVER, with this method rather than simple phagocytosis, the neutrophil is also killed (it kills more but gets killed too)
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40
Q

what is the main role of monocytes

A

emigrate from blood into connective tissue and become macrophages which are the major phagocytic cell of the body

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41
Q

what are the 2 types of macrophages

A
  1. wandering macrophages
  2. fixed macrophages
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42
Q

what are wandering macrophages

A

actively seeking pathogens and are widely distributed

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43
Q

what are fixed macrophages and what are the 3 types

A

phagocytize only pathogens that come to them
1. microglia- in CNS
2. alveolar- in lungs
3. hepatic- in liver

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44
Q

what exactly is fever and is it a good thing

A

abnormally high body temperature. it is an uncomfortable side effect of illness, but actually does more good than harm and helps the body fight off bacteria

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45
Q

what does the body release to help raise the body temperature when there is a fever

A

pyrogens (product of leukocytes and macrophages)

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46
Q

bacteria work at human body temperature so what happens when body temp is heated as in fever

A

they cannot proliferate

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47
Q

do people with colds recover more quickly or less quickly and are less effective to others when they allow a fever to run its course rather than taking antipyretics

A

more quickly

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48
Q

what are natural killer cells (NK)

A

lymphocyte derived, immune cells that attack cancerous cells or virally infected cells via MHC variance. NOT PHAGOCYTIC, MORE LIKE CYTOTOXIC T’S

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49
Q

how does NK cells perform immune surveillance

A

NK cells continually patrol the body on the lookout for pathogens and diseased host cells

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50
Q

walk me through the steps of NK cells and what things are involved

A
  1. NK cell releases PERFORINS which poke holes in foreign cell (enemy)
  2. granzymes from NK cell enter perforin hole and bust up interior and degrade enzymes inside
  3. enemy cell dies from apoptosis
  4. macrophage engulfs and digests dying cell
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51
Q

what exactly are antimicrobial proteins

A

proteins that inhibit microbial reproduction and provide short-term, nonspecific resistance to pathogenic bacteria and viruses. they can bind up any kind of pathogen, stop it from reproducing itself and moving around in body and slow them down so your WBCs can deal with them

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52
Q

what are the 2 families of antimicrobial proteins

A
  1. interferons
  2. complement system
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53
Q

explain the concept of interferons in antimicrobial proteins

A

sort of like interference. if a virus gets into the host cell and sets up, the host cell will release interferons which will interfere with viruses getting into adjacent cells. it sends out a signal that something bad is coming so that the next cell can prevent it from entering. (because viruses can only reproduce in our cell machinery)

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54
Q

what exactly is the complement system

A

group of around 30 proteins that make powerful contributions to both nonspecific resistance and specific immunity. it makes all other responses of immune system work better. “complements them” and enhances actions.

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55
Q

what is the complement system mainly synthesized by

A

liver

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56
Q

how does the complement system circulate in the blood and what happens when it is in the presence of a pathogen

A

circulated in the blood in inactive form and is activated by presence of the pathogen

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57
Q

what are the 4 methods of pathogen destruction that activated complement brings about

A
  1. inflammation
  2. immune clearance
  3. phagocytosis
  4. cytolysis
58
Q

explain the inflammation mechanism of antimicrobial complement system

A

C3a stimulates mast cells and basophils to secrete histamine and other inflammatory chemicals. this activates and attracts neutrophils and macrophages. and speeds pathogen destruction in inflammation

59
Q

explain the mechanism of immune clearance in antimicrobial proteins complement system

A

C3b binds with antigen-antibody complexes to RBCs. these RBCs circulate through the liver and spleen. Macrophages of those organs strip off and destory the antigen-antibody complexes leaving RBCs unharmed.

60
Q

what is the principal means of clearing forereign antigens from the bloodstream

A

immune clearance of antimicrobial proteins complement system

61
Q

explain the mechanism of phagocytosis in antimicrobial proteins complement system

A

neutrophils and macrophages cannot phagocytize naked bacteria or pathogens. C3b (from immune clearance) assists them by opsonization

62
Q

what is opsonization and what is it involved with

A

it is where C3b (from immune clearance) coats microbial cells and serves as binding sites for phagocyte attachment (used for phagocytosis for complement system)

63
Q

explain the mechanism of cytolysis in antimicrobial proteins complement system

A

binds to enemy cell. attract more complement proteins- membrane attack complex (MAC) forms: forms a hole in the target cell, electrolytes leak out, water flows in rapidly, cell ruptures

64
Q

what exactly is inflammation

A

local defensive response to tissue injury of any kind, including trauma and infection

65
Q

what suffix denotes inflammation of specific organs and give examples

A

-itis (arthritis, pancreatitis, dermatitis)

66
Q

what are the general purposes of inflammation

A
  1. block up area and limit spread of pathogens and destroys them (sections off that part of body to keep whatever infection in that area)
  2. removes debris from damaged tissue (send to lymph nodes)
  3. initiates tissue repair
  4. alerts adaptive immunity (specific)w
67
Q

what are the 4 cardinal signs of inflammation

A
  1. redness
  2. swelling
  3. heat
  4. pain
68
Q

what is the pus from in inflammation

A

dead neutrophils and WBCs and bacteria. remnanats of the battlefield

69
Q

what is neutrophil behavior in inflammation

A
  1. margination (selectins cause WBCs to adhere to blood vessel walls and hold in place)
  2. diapedesis (chemotaxis)- (WBCs squeeze between endothelial cells into tissue space) being able to move towards chemicals being released by bacteria so they can be dealt with
70
Q

what happens in inflammation when splinter pricks body

A

inflammatory chemicals like histamine are released which causes localized swelling. trying to prevent it from spreading pathogens to other parts of body

71
Q

what does the body use in inflammation to prevent spread of pathogens to other areas of body

A
  1. fibrinogen (filters into tissue fluid clots and forms a sticky mesh that walls off microbes)
  2. heparin (prevents clotting at site of injury; pathogens are in a fluid pocket surrounded by clot; attacked by antibodies, phagocytes, and other defenses)
72
Q

what are the primary agents of tissue cleanup and repair in inflammation

A

monocytes (arrive in 8-12 hours and become macrophages)

73
Q

simple example of how to obtain immunity

A

polio and small pox. you can be exposed to a simpler weaker version and can develop immunity from that

74
Q

what part of the adaptive specific defense is the special ops of your body and is antibody mediated

A

humoral immunity (B cells)- takes charge of bacteria in bloodstream

75
Q

what part of the adaptive specific defense attacks specific foreign substances and is slower to mount an adaptive defense but is more potent

A

cellular immunity (T cells)

76
Q

what are the 2 characteristics that distinguish specific (adaptive) immunity

A
  1. specificity
  2. memory
77
Q

what is specificity in adaptive specific immunity

A

immunity directed against a particular pathogen (E. Coli as opposed to any bacteria) (special B and T cells)

78
Q

what is memory in adaptive specific immunity

A

when re-exposed to the same pathogen, the body reacts so quickly that there is no noticeable illness (you are immune)

79
Q

what is an example of a way to stay up to date on memory to keep immune from specific (adaptive) pathogens

A

booster shots

80
Q

what are antigens and do they identify self or non-self

A

substance capable of mobilizing bodily defenses (non-self) it is a molecule the immune system recognizes as foreign aka FOE

81
Q

what are self-antigens?

A

MHC proteins (major histocompatability complex)

82
Q

what are MHC self antigens

A

self marker that labels the body’s cells as a FRIEND and are tolerated by immune system

83
Q

what are antibodies and what do they make up

A

they can attach to foreign antigens and mark cells them for death but cannot directly destroy them just inactivate and tag for death. they make up the “gamma globulins” in terms of blood proteins

84
Q

what are antibodies secreted by

A

B cells (plasma cells) in response to antigens

85
Q

what are the 4 means of action of antibodies to mark antigens and tag them for death

A
  1. neutralization
  2. agglutination
  3. precipitation
  4. complement
86
Q

explain the neutralization mean of action for antibodies to mark antigens for death

A

antibodies can block the active sites on viruses or bacterial toxins and prevent from binding

87
Q

explain the agglutination mean of action for antibodies to mark antigens for death

A

antibodies have more than 1 binding site and can bind multiple antigens to form a huge mass and macrophage or WBC can come and deal with it

88
Q

explain the precipitation mean of action for antibodies to mark antigens for death

A

there are potentially dangerous dissolved compounds in bloodstream. antibodies can find and bind to these and bring out of suspension (pulls the soluble molecules out of sus)

89
Q

explain the complement mean of action for antibodies to mark antigens for death

A

activated complement causes membrane attach complexes to insert leading to cell lysis. once antibodies have bound to a cell, they can be activated via the complement system and lead to poking holes in foreign cell (this also amplifies inflammatory response)

90
Q

where are B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes actually made from

A

bone marrow

91
Q

what are T lymphocytes involved in

A

cell-mediated immunity

92
Q

what are B lymphocytes involved in

A

humoral immunity

93
Q

what are the 3 cells of adaptive immunity

A
  1. T lymphocytes
  2. B lymphocytes
  3. antigen presenting cells (APC)
94
Q

where are T and B cells matured at or educated at and also reach immunocompetence at

A

T= thymus
B=bone marrow

95
Q

what is immunocompetence

A

appearance of cell-surface antigen receptors. ability to recognize one specific antigen. ability to bind to that antigen. they develop this while maturing

96
Q

what is self tolerance

A

learn about self antigens (SA). make sure to stay unresponsive to SA (dont attack ones own cells!)

97
Q

once a cell has reached immunocompetance and self tolerance what happens

A

they can then leave and go somewhere like the lymph node and be exposed to real antigens (B AND T CELLS MUST PASS AN EXAM BEFORE LEAVING SCHOOL)

98
Q

what exactly are antigen presenting cells (APC)

A

required to help T cells recognize antigens (dendritic cells, macrophages, reticular cells, B cells all function as these)

99
Q

explain how function of antigen-presenting cells (APC) depend on the MHC proteins

A

acts as cell identification tags that label every cell of your body as belonging to you. structurally unique for each individual EXCEPT FOR IDENTICAL TWINS

100
Q

explain cycle of Antigen presenting Cells

A

any bacteria that makes its way in, the Langerhans cell will pick that up and lead to cycle.
1. pagocytosis or foreign antigen
2. lysosome fuses with phagosome and antigen becomes degraded for what isnt needed
3. antigens from that bacteria will then be broguht to ruface and held there to be presented to B cells, T cells, etc (will recognize it next time)

101
Q

explain the concept of humoral (antibody-mediated) immunity B CELLS

A

mediated by antibodies that do not directly destroy a pathogen. antibodies mark infected cells for destruction- other immunity cells will then kill the cells marked for death. can only work against the EXTRACELLULAR stage of infectious microorganisms (must be freeliving)

102
Q

explain the concept of cellular (cell-mediated) immunity T CELLS

A

lymphocytes directly attack and destroy foreign cells or diseased host cells. means of ridding the body of pathogens that reside INSIDE HUMAN CELLS where they are inaccessible to antibodies (kills cells that harbor pathogens and cancer)

103
Q

what is a great way to broadcast antibodies throughout the body

A

humoral immunity- B cells

104
Q

describe the cycle of humoral adaptive immunity (B CELLS)

A
  1. it starts with naive B-lymphocytes
  2. those will bind to a foreign antigen in lymph node and becomes activated by a helper T cell
  3. those then differentiate into plasma cells or memory cells
  4. plasma cells are short lived (4-5 days) and will then become antibodies
  5. the memory cells (long lived years) will wait until they are exposed for a 2nd time and will then become plasma cells and then antibodies. this 2nd exposure is MUCH FASTER to make antibodies which will mark pathogens for death
105
Q

cartoon explanation of humoral immunity

A
  1. B cells will pick up foreign antigen
  2. B cell activated by helper T cell
  3. this differentiates into plasma cells and memory cells
    4a. plasma cells crank out antibodies marking foreign cells for death
  4. macrophages tear into those foreign cells and eats them.
    4b. if memory cells come into contact 1 more time, they go straight to plasma cells and activate much faster.
106
Q

explain the concept of cellular immunity

A
  1. Cytotoxic T cells act as HUNTERS. they go out and tear into any foreign cells they find by feeling of MHC and identify bad cells (self vs non self) and use perforins! to poke holes in them
  2. Helper T cells is where immune system runs basically. it activates other T cells, activates B cells of humoral immunity, guides whole adaptive response, directs macrophages and calls for help
  3. Memory T cells recognize foreign antigens and lead to immediate response (long lived) more numerous and act fast
107
Q

what is the only main way of dealing with cancerous cells

A

cellular immunity with T Cells

108
Q

what are the 3 main cells the cellular immunity go thru

A
  1. cytotoxic t cells
  2. helper t cells
  3. memory t cells
109
Q

why do we need cellular immunity to work inside the cells when humoral works outside

A

antibodies are not good enough to defend against pathogens inside the cells, so we need the T cells

110
Q

T-cells in cellular immunity cannot bind without the help of

A

antigen presenting cells (APC)

111
Q

both cellular and humoral immunity occur in what 3 stages

A
  1. recognition
  2. attack
  3. memory
112
Q

what is the definition of immunization

A

a type of active immunity

113
Q

what is the definition of a vaccine

A

substance containing an antigen

114
Q

what is a vaccination

A

artificial exposure to an antigen

115
Q

what is a booster

A

2nd artificial exposure to antigen

116
Q

what is an antibody titer

A

antibody left in a sample of plasma (depends on memory t and b cells)

117
Q

explain concept of immunization/vaccines

A

get a shot and be exposed to foreign pathogen while exposing it to antigens of foreign pathogens and upon 1st exposure you will develop plasma cells making antibodies which causes rise in antibody titer. upon the 2nd shot and exposure like a booster shot, new antibodies presented so more antibodies will be produced.

118
Q

what is immunity and how can it be brought on

A

the ability to combat diseases and cancer. brought on naturally through infection or artificially through medical intervention.

119
Q

what are the 2 types of acquired immunity of natural and artificial

A
  1. active
  2. passive
120
Q

which immunity is short lived and has no memory

A

passive

121
Q

what is the active and passive immunity of naturally acquired

A

passive: antibodies pass from mother to fetus via placenta or to infant in her milk.
active: infection; contact with pathogen (chicken pox)

122
Q

what is the active and passive immunity of artifically acquired

A

passive: injection of immune serum (gamma globulin) RHOGAM - someone else’s antibodies
active: vaccine; dead or attenuated pathogens.

123
Q

what 3 ways can the immune system harm the body

A
  1. allergies
  2. tissue rejection
  3. immune system disorders
124
Q

what are allergies

A

hypersensitivities to harmless substances such as food, pollen, or animal hair

125
Q

what are allergens

A

antigen that causes an allergic reaction (produces antigen for allergy)

126
Q

what is an immediate allergic response

A

caused by antibodies that attach to mast cells and basophils. when allergens attach to these molecules, histamine is released and we see allergy symptoms (inflammation occurs)

127
Q

what is anaphylactic shock

A

an immediate allergic reaction when an allergen enters the bloodstream. blood pressure drops and is life threatening.

128
Q

what happens with histamine being released in anaphylactic shock and how can it be fixed

A

when histamine is released there is vasodilation where there is fluid loss and circulatory is shut down (hypotensive shock) . this can be fixed by an epipen and an adrenaline shock fixes that and causes vasoconstriction and resets everything.

129
Q

what are delayed allergic responses

A

takes time. initiated by memory T cells where they wake up and attack days later ( why you come back days later for TB test)

130
Q

what are the 4 types of transplantation

A
  1. autograft
  2. isograft
  3. allograft
  4. xenograft
131
Q

what is an autograft

A

come from you matching MHC from own skin. skin grafts from own self. NO IMMUNE ISSUES FROM THISwh

132
Q

what is an isograft

A

from a genetically identical twin. BOTH WILL HAVE NO IMMUNE RESPONSE NO ISSUES

133
Q

what is an allograft

A

most common. coming from others of non identical people. want to get as close to MHC of other person as possible to limit chance of rejection. this is like the transplants of heart, kidney, lung, etc when people donate their bodies. POSSIBLE TISSUE REJECTION DUE TO DIFFERENT MHC’S COMMON REJECTIONS

134
Q

what is a xenograft

A

from another species like animals. commonly a pig heart valve. POSSIBILITY OF REJECTION BECAUSE OF GENETIC ENGINEERING LIKE TYPE O BLOOD (TRYING TO CLONE)

135
Q

when can tissue rejection occur

A

when cytotoxic T cells (which are really good at identifying non self) (and others, NK, macrophage, etc) respond to tissue that is not recognized as “self”

136
Q

how can tissue rejection be controlled

A

by administering immunosuppressive drugs or transplanting organs of same MHC in donor and recipient.
- corticosteroids (suppress inflammation)
- antiproliferatives (stop rapidly divididng cells)
- immunosuppressants (this is very hard to perfect, most reject the organ)

137
Q

what is chimeric immune system

A

mix of bone marrow of patient with donor bone marrow

138
Q

what is an autoimmune disease

A

a disease in which cytotoxic T cells or antibodies attack the body’s own cells as if they were foreign (multiple sclerosis, lupus, myasthenia gravis, rheumatoid arthritis) where own WBCs attack and destory own body tissues when not supposed to ( type 1 diabetes)

139
Q

what is an immunodeficiency disease

A

a disease in which the immune system is compromised and thus unable to defend the body against disease. body cant defend itself against foreign pathogens. (example of AIDS AND SCID)

140
Q

how is AIDS an immunodeficiency disease

A

where helper T cells are inactive so they cannot make antibodies to fight off pathogens

141
Q

how is SCID an immunodeficiency disease

A

Bubble Boy. WBCs are blind and have no immune function. may be controlled by bone marrow transplantation which may help make functioning WBCs.

142
Q

what do neutrophils give rise to

A

NK cells

a&p 2 (6 decks)

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