psychopathy 101

Question 1

what is the two process model

Answer 1

Mower (1960) argued that phobias are learned by classical conditioning and then maintained by opera conditioning, i.e. two processes are involved.

Question 2

describe the acquisition of phobias by classical conditioning

Answer 2

Classical conditioning involves association.
1. UCS triggers a fear response (fear is a UCR), e.g. being bitten creates anxiety.
2. NS is associated with the UCS, e.g. being bitten by a dog (the dog previously did not create anxiety).
3. NS becomes a CS producing fear (which is now the CR). The dog becomes a CS causing a CR of anxiety/ fear following the bite.

Question 3

describe the case of little albert : two process model

Answer 3

Watson and Rayner (1920) showed how a fear of rats could be conditioned
1. Whenever Albert played with a white rat, a loud noise was made close to his ear. The noise (UCS) caused a fear response (UCR).
2. Rat (NS) did not create fear until the bang and the rat had been paired together several times.
3. Albert showed a fear response (CR) every time he came into contact with the rat (now a CS).

Question 4

what did albert do to his fear of rats

Answer 4

generalisation of fear to other stimuli
For example, Little Albert also showed a fear in response to other white furry objects including a fu coat and a Santa Claus beard.

Question 5

how does operant conditioning maintain the fear ?

Answer 5

Operant conditioning takes place when our behaviour is reinforced or punished.
Negative reinforcement - an individual produces behaviour that avoids something unpleasant.
When a person with a phobia avoids a phobic stim they escape the anxiety that would have been experienced.
This reduction in fear negatively reinforces the avoidance behaviour and the phobia is maintained.

Question 6

name an example of negative reinforcement in phobias

Answer 6

If someone has a morbid fear of clowns (coulrophobial they will avoid circuses and other situations where they may encounter clowns.
The relief felt from avoiding clowns negatively reinforces the phobia and ensures it is maintained rather than confronted.

Question 7

name 2 strengths to the behavioural approach to explaining phobias

Answer 7

One strength of the two-process model is its real-world application.
De Jongh et al (2006) Evidence linking phobias to bad experiences (inc counter argument)

Question 8

name 1 limitation of the behavioural approach to explaining phobias

Answer 8

-inability to explain cognitive aspects of phobias

Question 9

statistical infrequency

Answer 9

Defining abnormality
The most obvious way to define anything as ‘normal’ in terms of statistics. or’abnormal’ is in terms of the number of times it is
observed.Statistics is about analysing numbers.
Any relatively ‘usual’, or often seen, behaviour can be thought of as ‘normal’
Any behaviour that is different, or rare, is ‘abnormal, ie a statistical infrequency.
1Q is normally distributed (see left).
The average IQ is 100. Most people have an IQ between 85 and 115, only 2% have a score below 70.
Those individuals scoring below 70 are statistically unusual or ‘abnormal’ and are diagnosed with intellectual disability disorder.

Question 10

describe SD

Answer 10

The therapy aims to gradually reduce anxiety through counterconditioning:
• Phobia is learned so that phobic stimulus (conditioned stimulus, CS) produces fear (conditioned response, CR).
• CS is paired with relaxation and this becomes the new CR.
Reciprocal inhibition - not possible to be afraid and relaxed at the same time, so one emotion prevents the other.

Question 11

describe an anxiety hierarchy

Answer 11

Client and therapist design an anxiety hierarchy-fearful stimuli arranged in order from least to most frightening.
A person with arachnophobia might identify seeing a picture of a small spider as low on their anxiety hierarchy and holding a tarantula as the final item.

Question 12

describe relaxation practiced at each level of the hierarchy

Answer 12

Person with phobia is first taught relaxation techniques such as deep breathing and/or meditation.
Person then works through the anxiety hierarchy. At each level the person is exposed to the phobic stimulus in a relaxed state.
This takes place over several sessions starting at the bottom of the hierarchy. Treatment is successful when the person can stay relaxed in high-anxiety situations.

Question 13

what is flooding inc extinction

Answer 13

Flooding involves exposing a person with a phobia with the phobic object without a gradual build-up.
A person with arachnophobia receiving flooding treatment may have a large spider crawl over their hand until they can relax fully (the person not the spider).

Without the option of avoidance behaviour, the person quickly learns that the phobic object is harmless through the exhaustion of their fear response. This is known as extinction.

Question 14

what is the ethical issues with flooding

Answer 14

Flooding is not unethical but it is an unpleasant experience so it is important that people being treat give informed consent. They must be fully prepared and know what to expect.

Question 15

evaluate SD

Answer 15

+evidence of effectiveness (Gilroy et al)
+useful for people with learning disabilities
-expensive

Question 16

negative triad: what is faulty information processing

Answer 16

Beck (1967) suggested that some people are more prone to depression because of faulty information processing. i.e. thinking in a flawed way.
When depressed people attend to the negative aspects of a situation and ignore positives, they also tend to blow small problems out of proportion and think in
‘black-and-white’ terms.

Question 17

negative triad: how do depressed people have a negative schema

Answer 17

A schema is a ‘package’ of ideas and information developed through experience. We use schema to interpret the world, so if a person has a negative self-schema they interpret all information about themselves in a negative way.

Question 18

describe the 3 elements to the negative triad a cognitive approach to explaining depression

Answer 18

There are three elements to the negative triad:
• Negative view of the world, e.g. ‘the world is a cold hard place’.
• Negative view of the future, e.g. ‘there isn’t much chance that the economy will get any better.
• Negative view of the self, e.g. thinking ‘I am a failure and this negatively impacts upon self-esteem.

Question 19

what is the A in the ABC model

Answer 19

Activating events
Ellis suggested that depression arises from irrational thoughts.
According to Ellis depression occurs when we experience negative events, e.g. failing an important test or ending a relationship.

Question 20

B in the ABC model

Answer 20

Beliefs
Negative events trigger irrational beliefs, for example:
• Ellis called the belief that we must always succeed musterbation.
. 1-can’t-stand-it-itis is the belief that it is a disaster when things do not go smoothly.
. Utopianism is the belief that the world must always
be fair and just.

Question 21

what is the C in Ellis (1962) ABC model

Answer 21

Consequences
When an activating event triggers irrational beliefs there are emotional and behavioural consequences.
For example, if you believe you must always succeed and then you fail at something, the consequence is depression.

Question 22

evaluate negative triad

Answer 22

+supporting research (Clark and Beck 1999)
+real-world application to screening for depression
-partial explanation

Question 23

evaluate Ellis’s ABC model

Answer 23

+it’s application in treating depression
-Ellis’s model only explains reactive depression
-ethical issues

Question 24

what is the most common psychological treatment and describe it

Answer 24

cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT)
CBT is an example of the cognitive approach to treatment, though it also includes behavioural aspects.
• Cognitive - challenge negative, irrational thoughts.
• Behaviour - change behaviour so it is more effective.
Client and therapist work together.

Question 25

what is the aim of CBT from Beck

Answer 25

The aim is to identify negative thoughts about the self, the world and the future - the negative triad.
These thoughts must be challenged by the client taking an active role in their treatment.

Question 26

how is the client viewed as the therapist in CBT

Answer 26

Clients are encouraged to test the reality of their irrational beliefs.
They might be set homework, e.g. to record when they enjoyed an event. This is referred to as the ‘client as scientist’.
In future sessions if clients say that no one is nice to them, the therapist can produce this evidence to prove the client’s beliefs are incorrect.

Question 27

what is Ellis’s rational emotive behaviour therapy

Answer 27

REBT extends the ABC model to an ABCDE model:
• D for dispute (challenge) irrational beliefs.
• E for effect.

Question 28

how is irrational thoughts challenged with an REBT therapist

Answer 28

Clients are encouraged to test the reality of their irrational beliefs.
They might be set homework, e.g. to record when they enjoyed an event. This is referred to as the ‘client as scientist.
In future sessions if clients say that no one is nice to them, the therapist can produce this evidence to prove the client’s beliefs are incorrect.

Question 29

what is behaviour activation

Answer 29

As individuals become depressed, they tend to increasingly avoid difficult situations and become isolated, which maintains or worsens symptoms.
The goal of behavioural activation, therefore, is to work with depressed individuals to gradually decrease their avoidance and isolation, and increase their engagement in activities that have been shown to improve mood, e.g. exercising, going out to dinner, etc.

Question 30

name 2 strengths of CBT

Answer 30

-evidence of effectiveness
-client preference

Question 31

name 2 limitations of CBT

Answer 31

-suitability for diverse clients inc counter evidence
-high relapse rates