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Biopsych Flashcards

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1
Q

Plasticity and functional recovery of the brain :

describe Brain plasticity with supporting research
Maguire et al 2000
Draganski et al 2006

A
  • the brain is ‘plastic’ - synaptic connections form and are pruned (peak at 2-3 years Gopnik et al 1999)
  • the concept of plasticity is supported by studies ( Maguire et al 2000 the longer they had been in the job, the more pronounced was the structural difference)
  • plasticity is also supported by other research: (Draganski et al 2006 imaged the brains of medical students three months before/ after final exams. learning induced changes were seen in the posterior hippocampus and the parietal cortex, presumably as a result of the exam)
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2
Q

Plasticity and functional recovery of the brain : functional recovery of the brain after trauma

A
  • following trauma unaffected areas of the brain take over lost functions ( neural plasticity) neuroscientists suggest this process occurs quickly then slows down
  • the brain ‘rewires’ itself by forming new synaptic connections ( secondary neural pathways that would not be typically used to carry out certain functions are activated to enable functioning to continue )
  • structural changes in the brain ( axonal sprouting , reformation of blood vessels , recruitment of homologous areas on opposite side of the brain to perform specific tasks)
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3
Q

Plasticity and functional recovery of the brain : Name 2 strengths

A
  • practical applications (neuro rehabilitation eg movement therapy and electrical stimulation of the brain to counter deficits onto cognitive functioning experienced following a stroke)
  • further support for neural plasticity from animal study ( Hubel and Wiesel kitten one eye sewn shut analysed brain cortical responses)
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4
Q

Plasticity and functional recovery of the brain : 2 limitations
relationship

A
  • neural plasticity may be related to cognitive reserve ( Schroder et al brain injury patients who had spent time in education and not
  • relationship between age and plasticity is complex ( plasticity tends to reduce with age but Bezzola et al’s study and results
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5
Q 
Ways of studying the brain: 
describe fMRI (3)Functional magnetic resonance imaging
A
  • highlights active areas of the brain
    1. detects changes in blood oxygenation and flow that occurs due to neural activity in specific brain areas
    2. when a brain area is more active it consumes more oxygen and blood flow is directed to the active area ( haemodynamic response)
    3. fMRI produces a 3D image showing which parts of the brain are active and therefore must b involved in particular mental processes
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6
Q

Split-brain research into hemispheric lateralisation:

What is hemispheric lateralisation and an example

A

-concerns behaviours controlled by just one hemisphere.

Language is an example of hemispheric lateralisation (usually controlled by the left hemisphere

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7
Q

Split-brain research into hemispheric lateralisation :

Describe what was sperrys aim and why of split brain studies

A
  • sought to demonstrate that the 2 hemispheres were specialised for certain functions and could perform tasks independently of one another
  • normally the hemispheres are connected by the corpus collision and a few other structures. A commissurotomy is an operation to cut the corpus callousness and is sometimes performed to control epileptic seizures
  • studied a group of epileptics who had the operation
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8
Q

Split-brain research into hemispheric lateralisation:

what happens when an image or word is projected to a patient RVF and LVF and what is the difference in both brains

A
  • an image or word is projected to a patients RVF (processed by LH) and another image to the LVF (processed by RH)
    In the normal brain, the corpus callosum ‘shares information between both hemispheres. In the split brain the information cannot be conveyed from the chosen hemisphere to the other s
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9
Q

Split-brain research into hemispheric lateralisation : Describe what happens when an object is shown and why

A

object shown to:
RVF: patient easily describes what is seen
LVF: patient says ‘there’s nothing there’

can’t describe objects in LVF because RH usually lacks language centres. Messages received by RH are normally relayed via the corpus callosum to language centres in LH

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10
Q

Split-brain research into hemispheric lateralisation: Recognition to touch

A

objects shown to LVF:
-could not name them but could select a matching object using left hand (connected to RH receiving information from LVF )
-left hand could also select an object that was associated with image presented to the LVF
the person could not verbally identify what they had seen (LH needed) but could ‘understand’ what the object was (using the RH) and select the corresponding object

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11
Q

Split-brain research into hemispheric lateralisation:

what happened when key’ presented to the left and ‘ring’ right visual field

A

the patient

  • selects a key with their left hand ( LVF goes to RH linked to left hand)
  • says the word ‘ring’ (RVF linked to LH with speech centres)
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12
Q

Split-brain research into hemispheric lateralisation: Name 2 strengths

A
  • shows lateralised brain functions (left= analyser right=synthesiser )
  • methodology Sperry used (standardised procedure)
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13
Q

Split-brain research into hemispheric lateralisation: 2 limitations

A
  • generalisation in relation to Sperrys work (cannot be widely accepted as split brain patients are such unusual sample of people)
  • difference in hemispheric functions maybe overstated (oversimplifies and overstates the difference in function between the two hemispheres)
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14
Q

Ways of studying the brain: (electroencephalogram)

EEG and an eg

A

shows overall electrical activity

  • measures electrical activity within the brain via electrodes using a skull cap
  • the scan recording represents the brainwave patterns generated from millions of neurons ( shows overall brain activity)
  • used as a diagnostic tool eg unusual arrhythmic patterns of brain activity may indicate abnormalities like epilepsy, tumours or sleep disorders
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15
Q

Ways of studying the brain: ERP’s

A

brainwaves related to particular events

  • what is left when all extraneous brain activity from an EEG recording is filtered out
  • done using a statistical technique, leaving only those responses that relate to the presentation of a specific stimulus or performance of a certain example (for eg)
  • types of brainwaves that are triggered by particular events
  • research has revealed many different forms of ERP and how these are linked to cognitive processes
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16
Q

Ways of studying the brain: Post mortem examinations

A
  • the analysis of a person’s brain following their death
  • areas of the brain are examined to establish the likely cause of a deficit or disorder that the person suffered in life
  • may involve comparison with a neurotypical brain in order to assess the extent of the differences
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17
Q

Ways of studying the brain: evalute fMRI

A
  • non invasive ( does not relying the use of radiation and is safe) produces images with high spatial resolution, showing detail by the millimetres
  • expensive (compared to others and only works if person stays still) poor temporal resolution
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18
Q

Ways of studying the brain: evalute EEG (electroencephalogram)

A
  • invaluable in diagnosing conditions such as epilepsy ( contributed to our understanding of the stages of sleep) can detect brain activity at a resolution of a single millisecond ( high temporal validity)
  • information is received from many thousands of neurons ( produces a generalised signal from thousands of neurons ) difficult to know exact source of neural activity
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19
Q

Ways of studying the brain: evalute ERP (event-related potentials)

A

+very specific measurement of neural processes (more specific than raw EEG) , excellent temporal resolution not like fMRI
- lack of standardisation in methodology between studies(difficult to confirm findings ) ,background noise and extraneous variables must be eliminated

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20
Q

Ways of studying the brain: evaluate post-mortems

A
  • provided the foundation for understanding the brain (Borca and Wernicke relied on post- mortem studies) , improve medical knowledge
  • causation may be an issue ( observed brain damage may not be linked to the deficits under review but to some other related trauma or delay ,, post mortem studies raise ethical issues of consent from the patient before death
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21
Q

Describe the motor area and damaged caused

A

-At the back of the frontal lobe across both hemispheres

· Controls voluntary movement in the opposite side of the body

· Damage to this area may result in loss of control over fine movements

22
Q

Describe the Somatosensory

A

· At the front of the parietal lobes across both hemispheres

· Separated from the motor area by a ‘valley’

· Where sensory information from the skin is represented

23
Q

Visual area

A

· In the back of the occipital lobe

· Each eye sends information from the right visual field to the left visual cortex and from the left visual field to the right visual cortex

· Damage to the left hemisphere can produce blindness in the right visual field of both eyes

24
Q

Auditory

A

· In the temporal lobes

· Analyses speech-based information

· Damage may produce hearing difficulties or loss

25
Q

Broca’s area

A

· Small area in the left frontal lobe

· Responsible for speech production

· Damage to this causes speech aphasia

26
Q

Wernicke’s Area

A

· Area in the left temporal lobe

· Responsible for language comprehension

· Damage to this area causes Wernicke aphasia

27
Q

describe the brain hemisphere

A

• The brain is divided into 2 symmetrical halves
• The right side of the brain controls the left part of the body and the left side of the brain controls
the right side of the body
• The outer layer of the brain is called the cerebral cortex

28
Q

what is localisation and what does it contrast with

A

the theory that different areas of the brain are responsible for different behaviors, processes or activities.

It contrasts with the holistic theory of the brain. If a certain area of the brain becomes damaged, the function associated with that area will also be affected.

29
Q

Name 2 strengths of localisation theory

Trigger: petersen et al 1988

A
  • brain scan evidence support

- support from case studies

30
Q

Name 2 limitations of localisation theory

A
  • neural plasticity is a challenge to localisation theory

- the existence of contradictory research

31
Q

Ways of studying the brain: FmRI

A

highlights active areas of the brain

  • detects changes in blood oxygenation and flow that occur due to neural activity in specific brain areas
  • when a brain area is more active it consumes more oxygen and blood flow is directed to the active area
  • fMRI produces a 3D image showing which parts of the brain are active and therefore most be involved in particular mental processes
32
Q

what are biological rhythms governed by

A
  • endogenous pacemakers (internal biological ‘clocks’ )

- exogenous zeitgebers (external changes in the environment)

33
Q

how long does the circadian rhythm last for

A

circa ‘about’ diem meaning ‘day’
24 hours
7 important types of circadian rhythm such as the sleep/ wake cycle

34
Q

What did Siffe demonstrate and how

A
  • a free-running circadian rhythm of about 25 hours and had a regular sleep/wake cycle
  • spent long periods in dark caves to examine the effects of free-running biological rhythms (2months) and again for 6 months when he was 60
35
Q

What did Aschoff and Wever found on circadian rhythms

A
  • ppts spent 4 weeks in a WW2 bunker deprived of natural light
  • all but one ( whose sleep/wake cycle extended to 29 hours) displayed a circadian rhythm between 24-25 hrs
  • both studies suggest the ‘natural’ sleep/wake cycle may be slightly longer than 24 hours but is entrained by exogenous zeitgebers associated with out 24-hr day ( eg no of daylight hrs , typical mealtimes)
36
Q

what is an exogenous zeitgebers

A

influence biological rhythms: these can be described as environmental events that are responsible for resetting the biological clock of an organism.

37
Q

what are endogenous pacemakers

A

internal mechanisms that govern biological rhythms, in particular, the circadian sleep-wake cycle

38
Q

what did Folkard et al find out about circadian rhythms (4)

A
  • studied group of 12 ppl who lived in a dark cave for 3 weeks, going to bed when the clock said 11.45 and waking up when it said 7.45
  • researchers gradually speeded up the clock (unknown to ppts ) so an apparent 24-hr day eventually lasted only 22hrs
  • only one ppt comfortably adjusted to the new regime ,,
  • suggests the existence of a strong free-running circadian rhythms that cannot easily be overriden by changes in the external environment
39
Q

name 2 strengths of circadian rhythms

A
  • practical application to shift work (economic implications)
  • practical application to drug treatment (research shows there are times during the day or night when drugs are more effective)
40
Q

Name 2 limitations of circadian rhythm

A
  • use of case studies and small samples in studies

- poor control in research studies( siffre had a lamp turned on from when he woke up until he went to bed)

41
Q

what is infradian rhythms and name an example

A
  • Infradian rhythms last longer than 24 hours and can be weekly, monthly or annually
  • human female menstrual cycle (rising levels of oestrogen cause the ovary to develop and release an egg. Then progesterone helps the womb lining to thicken, readying the body for pregnancy.If pregnancy does not occur, the egg is absorbed into the body and the womb lining comes away and leaves the body (menstrual flow)
42
Q

describe human female menstrual cycle

A
  • human female menstrual cycle (rising levels of oestrogen cause the ovary to develop and release an egg.
  • Then progesterone helps the womb lining to thicken, readying the body for pregnancy.
  • If pregnancy does not occur, the egg is absorbed into the body and the womb lining comes away and leaves the body (menstrual flow)
43
Q

infradian and ultradian rhythms study from stern and McClintock

A

stern McClintock studied 29 women with irregular periods .
Pheromones were taken from at different stages of their cycles, via a cotton pad under their armpits.
These pads were cleaned with alcohol and later rubbed on the upper lips of the other ppts
68% of women experienced changes to their cycle which brought them closer to the cycle of their ‘odour donor’

44
Q

name another infradian rhythms

A
  • SAD depressive disorder ( low mood,lack of activity) with a seasonal pattern
  • infradian rhythms
  • symptoms are triggered during winter months when the number of daylight hours becomes shorter
45
Q

what may SAD be caused by

A

during the night, the pineal gland secretes melatonin until dawn when there is an increase in light
during winter, the lack of light in the morning means secretion goes on for longer

46
Q

What is ultadian rhythms and explain an eg

A

last fewer than 24 hours and can be found in the pattern of human sleep.
sleep pattern occurs in 90-minute periods
divided into 5 stages, each characterised by a different level of brainwave activity (monitored using EEG)

47
Q

describe the 5 sleep stages

A

Stage 1 and 2 : person may be easily woken. Brainwaves become slower and more rhythmic, slowing further as sleep becomes deeper
Stage 3 and 4: difficult to rouse someone.Deep sleep or slow wave sleep characterised by delta waves (slower and greater amplitude)
Stage 5: REM sleep. Fast, jerky activity of eyes. Body paralysed yet brain activity speeds up

48
Q

evaluate infradian and ultradian rhythms

A

+research on the menstrual cycle shows it evolutionary value
+research of SAD is its practical application
-use of animal studies
-methodology used in synchronisation studies

49
Q

what is scn

A

suprachiasmatic nucleus is a tiny bundle of nerve cells in the hypothalamus which helps maintain circadian rhythms

nerve fibres from the eye cross at the optic chiasm on their way to the visual cortex.The scn lies just above the optic chiasm and receives information about light from the structure

50
Q

composite pictures in Split brain Research: Sperrys

A

composite picture made up of two difference halves of a face was presented (one half to each hemisphere)

  • LH dominated the verbal description
  • RH dominated the selection of a matching picture

Psychology (9 decks)

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