Psychopathology (Unit 2) Flashcards
Define ‘implicit norm’
Implicit, or unspoken, rules of social conduct
Define ‘explicit norm’
Explicit rules in society about acceptable behaviours
Outline the limitations of the ‘deviation from social norms’ definition
- Social Control; relying on predominant cultures as normal
- Changes over time
- Eccentricity vs. abnormal behaviour
- Role of culture; cultural relativisim
Outline the strengths of the ‘deviation from social norms’ definition
- This way of defining abnormality takes account of the greater good
- Recognises the role of context
Name the measure used to assess the extent to which someone is functioning adequately
GAF (Global Assessment of Functioning Scale)
State and explain four of the characteristics identified in Rosenhan and Seligman’s study (1989)
- Irrationality
- Observer Discomfort
- Unpredictability
- Maladaptive Behaviour
Outline the limitations of the ‘failure to function adequately’ definition
- Who judges what is ‘adequate’?
- Inadequacy and Abnormality are different
- Highly functioning individuals
Outline the strengths of the ‘failure to function adequately’ definition
- Easy to judge
- GAF allows clinicians to judge the degree of abnormality
List Jahoda’s six key criteria for mental health
Positive Attitudes Self-Actualisation Autonomy Resisting Stress Accurate Perception of Reality Environmental Mastery
Outline the limitations of the ‘deviation from ideal mental health’ definition
- Difficulty reaching all six criteria (Jahoda)
- Some stress can be motivating
- Cultural Relativism; Autonomy
Outline the strengths of the ‘deviation from ideal mental health’ definition
- Positive approach
- Holistic approach; focuses on the whole person
Outline the limitations of the ‘statistical infrequency’ definition
- Not all abnormal behaviours are undesirable (hyperintelligence)
- Not all normal behaviours are desirable (depression)
- Cultural relativism; ADHD, depression are more recognised/reported in western cultures
- Only includes those who have been to see a professional (mostly women)
Outline the strengths of the ‘statistical infrequency’ definition
- Once a ‘cut-off point’ for normality to abnormality has been decided, it is an objective and easy measure to use
- Based on real data
- Statistical evidence to support patient’s requests for help
Describe what is meant by ‘DSM’
Diagnostic and Statistic Manual of Mental Disorders
Describe what is meant by ‘ICD’
International Classification of Diseases
Define ‘agoraphobia’
Usually involves the fear of crowds and open spaces, commonly found in younger female adults
Outline the emotional characteristic of phobias
Avoidant/Anxiety response; high levels of anxiety when faced with feared objects/situations. Results in avoidant behaviour
Disruption of functioning; anxiety and avoidance responses interfere with everyday working and social functioning
Outline the behavioural characteristic of phobias
Persistant, excessive fear; high levels of anxiety due to presence or anticipation of feared object/situation
Fear from exposure to phobic stimulus; phobias produce immediate response, even panic attacks
Outline the cognitive characteristic of phobias
Recognition of exaggerated anxiety; phobics are generally aware that their fear is exaggerated
DEPRESSION:
Outline the characteristics of uni-polar depression
B: Loss of Energy, Weight Changes, Lack of Personal Hygiene
E: Loss of Enthusiasm, Constant Depression, Worthlessness
C: Delusions
DEPRESSION:
Outline the characteristics of bi-polar depression
B: High Energy Levels, Reckless Behaviour, Talkative
E: Elevated Mood States, Irritability, Lack of Guilt
C: Delusions, Irrational Thought Processes
OCD:
What category of disorder is OCD classed as in the DSM/ICD?
OCD is an anxiety disorder
OCD:
Name and define the two main components of OCD
Obsessions; thoughts, maybe innapropriate or irrational (e.g. thinking germs are everywhere)
Compulsions; intense and uncontrollable [urges] actions as a result of obsessions (e.g. constantly washing hands)
OCD:
Outline the characteristics of obsessions
B: Disruption of Functioning, Social Impairment
E: Extreme Anxiety
C: Reccurent/Persisant Thoughts, Recognition of Self-Generation and Irrationality
OCD:
Outline the characteristics of compulsions
B: Disruption of Functioning, Repetition, Social Impairment
E: Distress
C: Uncontrollable Urges, Realisation of Innapropriateness
Outline the case of Little Albert using Classical Conditoning
UCS (LOUD NOISE) - UCR (FEAR)
UCS (LOUD NOISE) + NS (WHITE RAT) - UCR (FEAR)
CS (WHITE RAT) - CR (FEAR)
Briefly describe the stages of Mowrer’s Two-Process Model as an explanation of phobias
- Initiation
Explains how the feeling of fear and the phobic object/situation are paired, using Classical Conditioning - Maintenance
Explains how phobias are reinforced and prolonged, using Operant Conditioning
Outline the explanation for the maintenance of phobias using Operant Condtioning
Positive Reinforcement; the attention generated by the fear increases the likelihood that it’ll happen again
Negative Reinforcement; the avoidance of the phobic object/situation increases the likelihood to do it again
Evaluate the behavioural approach to explaining phobias (pros)
- Phobia treatment (e.g. SD and Flooding) use conditioning techniques based on behaviourist principles
- Little Albert study supports the CC and OC explanation of phobias
Evaluate the behavioural approach to explaining phobias (cons)
- Di Nardo et al; not all people who get bitten by dogs develop phobias
- Not all people with phobias of dogs have had a traumatic experience with dogs
- Biological Preparedness (Seligman); why we are afraid of things from our species’ past, like dangerous animals and not new things like cars
List the steps of Systematic Desensitisation
- Patient is taught muscle relaxation techniques
- Therapist and patient construct a hierarchy of anxiety-provoking situations
- Patient works through the hierarchy (in vivo/in vitro)
- The patient progresses through the hierarchy once i a calm and relaxed state
- Patient has successfully mastered the fear
Evaluate Systematic Desensitisation (pros)
- McGrath et al; 75% success rate
- No side effects
- Self administered
Evaluate Systematic Desensitisation (cons)
Does not deal with underlying causes and can lead to Symptom Substitution
Outline Beck’s cognitive approach to explaining depression
- People become depressed due to negative schemas which dominate their thinking
- These schemas are triggered when the person is in a similar situation to when the schema was learned
- Beck proposed these are developed during childhood/adolescence when authority figures are highly critical
Define ‘selective abstraction’ (cognitive bias)
Conclusions drawn from just one part of the situation
Define ‘overgeneralization’ (cognitive bias)
Broad conclusions based on a single event
What are the three components of Beck’s Negative Triad
Negative views about the world
Negative views about the future
Negative views about oneself
Outline Ellis’ ABC Model
A - ACTIVATING EVENT (something happens)
B - BELIEF (you hold a belief about the event)
C - CONSEQUENCE (emotional response to belief)
Evaluation of cognitive approach to explaining depression (pros)
- Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) combined with drug therapy is very successful
- Study found depressed participants made more errors in logic (which supports biased thinking)
Evaluation of cognitive approach to explaining depression (cons)
- Only LINKS depression and negative thinking, no cause-and-effect
- Reductionist; ignores potential causes of depression
What does CBT involve?
Cognitive;
- Therapist helps client identify beliefs and consequences
- Also acknowledges the cost of faulty thinking
Behavioural;
-Therapist aims to repair the faulty thinking through roleplays and homeworks
Identify the components of Ellis’ REBT Therapy
Logical Disputing (Do these thoughts make sense?)
Empirical Disputing (Where is the proof of accuracy?)
Pragmatic Disputing (How is this likely to help me?)
Evaluation of CBT as a treatment for depression (pros)
- David et al; 170 majorly depressed ppts found 14 weeks of REBT was better than drug therapy
- Potentially, cost and time effective
Evaluation of CBT as a treatment for depression (cons)
-Some people may struggle to express themselves
List the genetic explanations for OCD
- The COMT gene
- The SERT gene
- The diathesis-stress model
Identify a neural explanation for OCD
Abnormal levels of neurotransmitters
Outline ‘the COMT gene’ as an explanation for OCD
- COMT gene is involved in the regulation of dopamine
- Lower activity of the COMT gene results in higher dopamine, a common symptom in OCD patients
Outline ‘the SERT gene’ as an explanation for OCD
SERT gene affects the transport of serotonin, lower levels of serotonin is a common symptom in OCD patients
Outline ‘the diathesis-stress model’ as an explanation for OCD
Maybe environments play a part in OCD development, certain situations could cause the variation of the COMT or SERT gene to be triggered
Outline ‘abnormal levels of neurotransmitters’ as an explanation for OCD
- Hu (2006) found a link between low levels of serotonin and OCD
- Animal research shows that dopamine-increasing drugs enhance compulsive behaviours similar to OCD sufferers
Evaluation for biological explanation for OCD (pros)
Anti depressants; increase serotonin, reduce OCD symptoms
Evaluation for biological explanation for OCD (cons)
- Not got 100% concordance rate with MZ twins, suggesting it could be environmental
- High dopamine/low serotonin may be a CAUSE of OCD
What are SSRI’s?
Antidepressants
How to SSRI’s work?
They raise levels of serotonin by stopping it being re-absorbed by the neuron it came from
What are Benzodiazepines (BZs)?
Anti-anxiety drugs
How do BZ’s work?
Taking these enables GABA to slow down your brain
Evaluation of drug therapy as a treatment for OCD (pros)
- Effective at reducing symptoms (SSRI’s only short-term though)
- A better solution for those who struggle to express themselves
Evaluation of drug therapy as a treatment for OCD (cons)
- Drug therapy only treats symptoms, and does not cure OCD
- Drugs have side-effects and are not recommended as a long-term solution
