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Psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

Statistical infrequency

A

Behaviour or thinking that is numerically uncommon / rare. 2 or more standard deviations from the mean

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2
Q

Deviation from social norms

A

Behaviour that violates / breaks the rules and accepted standards of behaviour in a community or group. These can be implicit (implied) or explicit (laws) and vary between places and over time.

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3
Q

Failure to function adequately

A

Behaviour or thinking which means someone is unable to cope with the demands of day-to-day life

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4
Q

Deviation from idea mental health

A

When someone’s thinking or behaviour does not meet the criteria needed for optimism psychological/mental well being. The fewer criteria met, the greater the abnormality. Jahoda identified a number of criteria (try to remember the mnemonic S P E A R S).

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5
Q

Self actualisation

A

Fulfilling one’s potential. Each person is driven to grow and achieve this. One of Jahoda’s criteria for ideal mental health

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6
Q

Personal autonomy

A

The ability to make choices regarding the direction of one’s life. One of Jahoda’s criteria for ideal mental health

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7
Q

Environmental mastery

A

Being able to adapt to new situations and thrive. One of Jahoda’s criteria for ideal mental health

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8
Q

Accurate perception of reality

A

accurate view of the world and of themselves. One of Jahoda’s criteria for ideal mental health

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9
Q

Resistance to stress

A

Being able to handle difficult times and distressing situations, without becoming overwhelmed. One of Jahoda’s criteria for ideal mental health

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10
Q

Self esteem

A

Having a positive attitude towards oneself. One of Jahoda’s criteria for ideal mental health

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11
Q

Phobia

A

An anxiety disorder characterised by excessive fear of an object or situation out of proportion to the threat.

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12
Q

Depression

A

A mental disorder characterised by low mood and low energy levels

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13
Q

OCD

A

A condition characterised by reoccurring and intrusive thoughts that cause anxiety and repetitive, rigid actions that temporarily reduce anxiety.

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14
Q

Behavioural characteristics

A

Ways in which people act

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15
Q

Emotional characteristics

A

Ways in which people feel

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16
Q

Cognitive characteristics

A

Process of thinking

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17
Q

OCD characteristics

A
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18
Q

Depression characteristics

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19
Q

Phobia characteristics

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20
Q

Two process model

A

Suggested by Mowrer, whereby classical conditioning helps to develop a phobia and operant conditioning helps to maintain it

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21
Q

Classical conditioning

A

Learning by association. Occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together

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22
Q

Operant conditioning

A

A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences, e.g. rewards and punishments

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23
Q

Systematic desesirisatiom

A

A behavioural therapy designed to reduce an unwanted response, such as anxiety, to a stimulus. It involves a hierarchy of anxiety-provoking situations related to the stimulus, teaching the patient to relax, and then exposing them to phobic situations.

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24
Q

Relaxation techniques

A

In systematic desensitisation patients learn techniques to help them remain and become calm when faced with phobic stimuli, such as progressive muscle relaxation or meditation

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25
Q

Anxiety hierarchy

A

A list of situations involving the phobic stimulus from least to most scary, created by the patient and therapist together.

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26
Q

Counter conditioning

A

The process that underpins systematic desensitisation - replacing a stimulus-response association with a new, more positive, learned response

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27
Q

Reciprocal inhibition

A

The theory that two conflicting emotions (e.g. fear and relaxation) cannot co-exist at the same time.

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28
Q

Flooding

A

A behavioural therapy in which a phobic patient is exposed to an extreme form of a phobic stimulus in order to reduce anxiety triggered by that stimulus. This takes place across a small number of long therapy sessions

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29
Q

Exposure

A

Therapies which prevent the avoidance of the phobic stimulus by putting the patient in a situation where they encounter the phobic stimulus.

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30
Q

Extinction

A

Conditioned stimuli aren’t permanent unless they are occasionally paired with the UCS. In phobias this doesn’t happen when the phobic encounters the phobic stimulus for an extended time so the learnt response will go be unlearnt.

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31
Q

Exposure

A

Patients cannot maintain high levels of fear for prolonged periods of time. When facing a phobic stimulus eventually they become too tired to maintain high levels of anxiety and fear.

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32
Q

Cognitive approach

A

Focused on how our internal mental processes affect behaviour

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33
Q

Negative self schema

A

Beck said depressives interpret information about themselves in a negative way. Schema is a ‘package’ of information based on experience, used to interpret the world.

34
Q

Negative triad

A

Beck proposed that there were three kinds of negative thinking that contributed to becoming depressed: negative views of the world, the future and the self. Such negative views make them more vulnerable to depression

35
Q

ABC model

A

Ellis proposed that depression occurs when an activating event (A) triggers an irrational belief (B) which in turn produces a consequence (C), i.e. an emotional response like depression. The key to this process in the irrational belief

36
Q

Irrational thoughts

A

Ellis said these are beliefs that are likely to interfere with a person’s happiness. Such dysfunctional thoughts lead to mental disorders such as depression

37
Q

Cognitive behaviour therapy CBT

A

A method for treating mental disorders based on both cognitive and behavioural techniques, such as challenging negative thoughts.

38
Q

Empirical dispute

A

Ellis used vigorous argument to challenge irrational thoughts including seeking evidence for a persons thoughts then challenging this evidence.

39
Q

Logical dispute

A

Ellis used vigorous argument to challenge irrational thoughts including questioning the logic of a persons thoughts (do they make sense) then challenging this.

40
Q

Biological approach

A

A perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body, such as genetic inheritance and neural function

41
Q

Genetic explanations

A

A way of explaining a characteristic based on inherited traits through DNA

42
Q

Candidate genes

A

Candidate genes are specific genes that give a predisposition to a condition

43
Q

Polygenic

A

When there are several alleles involved in the development of a trait, where the presence of each one increases the chances of the trait a little bit more

44
Q

Aetiologically heterogeneous

A

One group of genes cause a condition in some people, different groups of genes cause it in others. Also different genes might cause different types of OCD, e.g. hoarding.

45
Q

Neural explanations

A

The view that physical and psychological characteristics (e.g. OCD and schizophrenia) are determined by the behaviour of the nervous system, in particular the brain as well as individual neurons as well as the function of neurotransmitters.

46
Q

Drug therapy

A

Treatment involving medication, i.e. chemicals that have a particular effect on the functioning of the brain or some other body system. In the case of psychological disorders such drugs usually affect neurotransmitter levels

47
Q

Serotonin

A

An inhibitory neurotransmitter thought to be linked with OCD - its chances of diffusion are increased by SSRIs

48
Q

SSRIs

A

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. They stop serotonin being reabsorbed into the presynaptic nerve, so that it has another chance to diffuse into the receptors on the post synaptic nerve.

49
Q

Fluoxetine

A

n example of an SSRI with a typical dose of between 20 and 60mg

50
Q

Tricyclics

A

An older type of antidepressant than SSRIs that work In a similar way but with more side effects e.g. clomipramine

51
Q

Rosenhan and Seligman

A

Characteristics/ signs a person isn’t coping; observer discomfort, personal distress, maladaptive behaviour

52
Q

Mowrer

A

Came up with the two-way process in explaining phobias, involving both classical conditioning for phobia initiation and operant conditioning for phobia maintenance.

53
Q

Watson and raynor

A

Little Albert study

54
Q

Choy et al

A

Compared treatments for phobias. Systematic and flooding both effective, but flooding slightly better.

55
Q

Gilroy et al

A

Tested systematic desensitisation – three sessions, followed up three and 33 months later. Effective.

56
Q

Beck

A

Developed the Negative Triad theory of depression, which states that sufferers have a negative view of themselves, the world and the future

57
Q

Ellis

A

Developed the ABC model for explaining depression, with A = activating event, B = belief about that event, and C = the consequence of that belief.

58
Q

March et al

A

Compared the efficacy of CBT, antidepressants, and a combination. CBT and antidepressants both had an 81% success rate, whilst a combination had 86% success

59
Q

Elkin

A

Found that CBT was significantly less effective for people who have high levels of irrational beliefs

60
Q

Nestadt

A

Found that those who were first-degree relatives of sufferers of OCD were 5x more likely to develop the condition than the general population

61
Q

Strength of statistical infrequenc

A

Definition used in clinical practice, e.g. Intellectual disability disorder. IQ of <70

62
Q

Negs of statistical infrequency

A

Not always bad thing eg high IQ
Social stigma from label, people could be living happy fulfilled life

63
Q

Strengths of deviation from social norms

A

antisocial personality disorder uses failure to conform to culturally accepted behaviour for diagnosis. This shows the criterion has usefulness in psychiatry.

64
Q

Negs of deviation from social norms

A

Normsareculturallyrelative–Welabelothersaccordingto the standards of our cultural group e.g. hearing voices a norm in some cultures, labelled abnormal in UK . So, the definition is less useful for diagnosis for those who move between cultures.

65
Q

Strengths of real world application

A

Considers the patient’s perspective – whilst difficult to measure distress it acknowledges the patient’s experience is important and usefully gives a threshold for when to provide help.

66
Q

Negs of failure to function adequately

A

It is hard to say if someone isn’t coping or just deviating form social norms. E.g. not having a job may be an alternative lifestyle choice, not a sign of FtFA.
Involves subjective judgement

67
Q

Pos of deviation from ideal mental health

A

Covers a broad range of criteria so most reasons why someone would access mental health services. It provides a useful checklist for clinicians to assess others and against we can asses ourselves

68
Q

Negs of deviation from ideal mental health

A

Unrealistically high expectations – few people actually meet all johodas checklist

69
Q

Strength of behavioural explanations for phobias

A

Application to therapy – phobia can be treated by preventing avoidance, e.g. Systematic desensitisation is effective for spiders (Gilroy et al.). Therefore the explanation is useful and likely accurate.
✓People can often remember a traumatic event. Particularly agoraphobics (Sue et al.) This shows how phobias result from bad experiences (conditioning).

70
Q

Key study for behavioural explanations for phobias

A

Little Albert (Watson and Rayner) Procedure – Association of white rats (NS) with loud
bang (UCS). Metal bar hit when presented with rat. Findings - White rats became a CS leading to fear (CR). Generalised to similar stimuli, e.g. white hairy objects.

71
Q

Negs of behavioural explanations for phobias

A

Sometimes phobias develop with no trauma.
Not all bad experiences lead to phobias. Di Nardo et al Dogs:

72
Q

Biological explanation for OCD:genetic strengths

A

Supporting evidence for the role of genes. Twin studies e.g. Nestadt et al. found high concordance rate of 68% for MZ twins and lower for DZ twins 31%.

73
Q

Negs of biological explaanrion for OCD: genetic

A

Environmental risk is also important as OCD often follows trauma. Cromer et al. found 54% of OCD suffers reported traumatic life events (TLE). Many who had the worse symptoms had multiple TLEs. A diathesis- stress may be better explanation.
× There are too many candidate genes implicated in OCD to have predictive value. If we can’t use this knowledge to predict who will develop OCD as many genes are involved, the explanation is of limited usefulness. Though, it may help in developin

74
Q

Pos of biological explanation for OCD: neural explanations

A

Application. Explanation has led to effective treatments. Antidepressants reduce OCD by increasing serotonin levels. 17 studies showed SSRIs more effective than placebos (Soomro et al.). Also supports the neural explanation

75
Q

Negs of neural explanation for OCD biological

A

Serotonin OCD link may just be because patients are depressed. Patients with OCD often have depression (two illnesses at once is co-morbidity). Level of serotonin found in patients may relate to their depression and not their OCD.
× Correlation doesn’t mean causation. As likely that OCD causes the abnormal functioning in brain areas rather than other way around, or a third factor causes both

76
Q

Biological treatment for OCD drug therapies positives

A

Research support. Review of 17 studies showed SSRIs more effective than placebos (Soomro et al.)
✓Drugs are cheaper and non-disruptive to patients compared to alternatives e.g. CBT takes between 5-20 sessions and is expensive to the NHS.

77
Q

Negs of biological treatments for OCD:drug therapies

A

Drugs have side effects, e.g. indigestion, blurred vision and loss of sex drive which may effect whether treatment continues.
× OCD often follows trauma (Cromer et al.). As half of OCD patients had traumatic life events, it suggests an environmental cause, so questions use of biological treatments.

78
Q

What are some irrational beliefs Ellis proposed

A

Musterbation, Utopianism

79
Q

Strengths of cognitive explanation for depression

A

Good supporting evidence for the role of cognitions: Grazioli and Terry assessed 65 pregnant women for cognitive vulnerabilities. Those with faulty thoughts were more likely to develop post- natal depression later. Shows causation.
✓ R.W.A. Forms the basis of CBT (talking therapy). Therapist can challenge negative triad and patient can test it. Evidence shows CBT is effective -81% (March et al.). As changing thought processes is effective, it supports the role of thoughts in depression

80
Q

Negs of cognitive explanation for depression

A

Explains reactive depression but depression doesn’t always follow an event. Also, can’t explain symptoms like hallucinations. Matters as only a partial explanation
× Ignores other explanations. E.g. Biological. We know that SSRIs which increase serotonin help depression which implies there is a role for the neurotransmitter.

81
Q
A

Psychology (8 decks)

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