Psychopathology Flashcards
Psychopathology
Refers to either study of mental illness/distress or manifestation of behav and experiences, may be indicative of mental illness or psychological impairment
Statistical infrequency
Abnormal behav (characteristics fall outside normal distribution) r rare + those behav found in few people. Mathematical method to define abnormality. Mathematical element is about the idea that human attributes fall in normal distribution in population. Central average/mean - rest of population fall above/below mean symmetrically. Standard deviation measures how far scores on either side from mean. M
Deviation from Social Norms
Abnormality when behav doesn’t fit what’s socially acceptable. Dependant on culture behav occurs in. Social norms different in various cultures so abnormality different. How Deeply entrenched that norms is embedded in culture and how important culturally it is - important. slight deviation form norms may not be regarded as abnormal if norm isn’t considered important by society.
Failure to function adequately
Abnormal behav is when an indiv not able to cope with everyday life. Acknowledges that people may act differently but if they have basic inability to manage in everyday life their behav is abnormal. Ability to function/cope defined by Rosenhan + Seligman in 7 sections. (E.g observer distress) GAF - global assessment of functioning scale- method to measure how well indiv function in everyday life and considers 7 sections + occupational functioning. An indiv must also be failing to function adequately before diagnosis is given
Deviation from ideal mental health
Abnormality defined as deviating from ideal of positive mental health in terms of Jahoda’s (1958) criteria of ideal mental health. Absence form criteria indicates abnormality + potential mental disorder. J suggested 6 criteria need to be fulfilled for ideal mental health and if not, may experience difficulties (e.g accurate perception of reality)
Statistical infrequency evaluation (real life application)
P - real life application in diagnosis of intellectual disability disorders
E - a place for statistical deviation in thinking about what r normal + abnormal behav and characteristics. All assessments of patients with mental disorders include some kind of measurement of how severe symptoms r compare to statistical norms.
E - SI is useful part of clinical assessment
I - shows real life application of SI and increase reliability + validity
Statistical infrequency evaluation (subjective)
P - SI definition s that cut off points r subjectively determined
E - eg people disagree on what constitutes abnormal amount of sleep
C - but since it’s a symptom of depression, it’s important to know where cut off points lies for diagnosis to be made
E - disagreement about cut off points make it difficult to define abnormality in terms of SI
Statistical infrequency evaluation (labelling)
P - not everyone benefits from a label.
E - Where someone is living a happy fulfilled life, no benefit to them being labelled abnormal regardless of how unusual they r
E - eg someone with every low IQ may not be distressed + capable of working
I - shows labelling person as abnormal using def could have negative effect of their self view and way others view them
Deviation from social norms evaluation ( desirability)
P - Includes issue of desirability of behav
E - eg being genius is statistically abnormal, but wouldn’t include in def of abnormal behav.
E - narcissism was once viewed as deviation from social norms. In today society, selfies r common place
I - means social norms can be more useful than other definition such as statistical norms
Deviation from social norms evaluation ( cultural differences)
P - sociak norms vary from 1 community to another
E - means a person from 1 cultural group may label someone from another cultural group as behaving abnormally according to their standards of person behaving in that way
E - eg hearing voices isn’t seen as abnormal in all cultures.
I - problematic to use social norms to define abnormal behav when diagnosing those from other cultures
Deviation from social norms evaluation ( varying social norms )
P - social norms vary over time
E - eg homosexuality was considered mental disorder in DSM. but homosexuality now considered to be socially acceptable
E - deviation from social norms def is based on prevailing social morals + attitudes about what is seems normal + abnormal
I - too much reliance on def could lead to systematic abuse of human rights people hold
Failure to function evaluation (subjectivity accepting)
P - does attempt to include subjective experience of indiv
E - acknowledges that experience of patient + people around them is important.
E - In this sense failure to function adequately def captures experience of many of people who need help
I - suggests failure to function adequately is useful criticism for assessing abnormalities. Increases usefulness when diagnosing abnormality
Failure to function evaluation
( professional diagnosis)
P - someone needs to decide whether this is actually the case
E - sometimes people experience personal distress + recognise their behav is undesirable
E - but sometimes people r content with their behav + it’s others who r distressed by it. whether behav is defined as abnormal or not depends on who is making judgment, may be subjective
I - means not all behav can be diagnosed objectively so decreases validity and reliability of def
Failure to function evaluation
( functionality)
P - some apparently abnormal behav can be functional
E - eg depression may lead to extra attention for indiv. Attention is rewarding + therefore functional, even if generally regarded abnormal.
E - failure to function adequately is an incomplete def as fails to distinguish between behav that r dysfunctional + those that have some function for indiv
I - decreases validity of def due to its poor application to all abnormal behav
Deviation from ideal mental health evaluation (very comprehensive)
P - very comprehensive
E - covers broad range of criteria for mental health. Some would argue it probably covers most of reasons people seek help from mental health services or referred for help. Sheer range of factors discussed in relation to Jahoda’s ideal mental health def make it good tool for thinking about mental health
C - unrealistic criteria
E - few people would satisfy all criteria all of time. Everyone would be described as abnormal to a degree so need Jahoda’s criteria need to narrowed down - Which specific absences would indicate abnormality
Deviation from ideal mental health evaluation (cultural differences)
P - a specific to Western European + North American cultures
E - Jo’s criteria based on western ideals + beliefs. Applying them to members of non western cultures would be inappropriate
E - eg concept of self actualisation would seem indulgent in many areas of world
I - criteria can only be applied within individualist cultures
Deviation from ideal mental health evaluation (different diagnosis of physical health)
P - suggest mental health is same as physical health
E - in general, physical illnesses have physical causes, makes the relatively easy to diagnosis. Not all metals disorders have physical causes
E - means unlikely we can diagnose mental abnormality in same way we diagnose physical abnormality
I - reduces validity
Phobia
Irrational fear of object/situation. Fear of phobic stimuli is excessive. Avoided/responded to with greta anxiety. Creates anxiety disorder
Def :
Specific phobias
Agoraphobia
Social anxiety
- fear on objects/situations
- fear of open/public places
- fear of social situations
Behavioural characteristics of phobias
Panic - crying, screaming
Avoidance - efforts to avoid phobic stimuli to reduce anxiety
Endurance - remaining in presence of phobic stimuli but experience high levels of anxiety
Emotional characteristics of phobias
Anxiety - unpleasant state of high arousal, prevents relaxation + positive emotion
Emotional responses r unreasonable - disproportionate emotions to danger posed by phobic stimuli
Cognitive characteristics of phobias
Selective attention to phobic stimuli- attention will be placed on stimuli once identified
Irrational beliefs - unsupported view of phobic stimuli
Cognitive distortions - exaggerated/irrational thought pattern from phobic stimuli
Recognition of exaggerated anxiety - conscious awareness that anxiety levels experienced r overstated
Two process model
Mowrer introduced based on behavioural approach to phobias. States phobias learnt by classical conditioning + continue by operant. Whenever we avoid phobic stimuli, successfully escape fear and anxiety suffered if presence there. Reduction in fear is positive reinforcer and
reinforces avoidance behav and so phobia maintained
Watson and Rayner study
1920 - aimed demonstrate irrational fear could be induced by use of classical conditioning. Use placid baby boy, little Albert (9 months - no previous fear of lab white rat). 11 months carried out procedure aimed to induce fear, When rat placed on Albert lap, loud noise by banging 2 steels behind Albert’s head, done seven times
Loud noise - US Crying - UR
Rat before experiment - NS
Rat after experiment - CS
Fear - CR
Two process model evaluation ( application)
P - step forward beyond Watson + Rayners concept of classical conditioning
E - provides explanation of how phobias can be maintained over time, important implications for therapies as explains why patients need to be exposed to phobias stimulus
E - preventing patients practising avoidance behav, behav is stopped being reinforced
I - therapy application
Two process model evaluation (biological )
P - biological preparedness may be better explanation than model of how phobia work
E - eg it’s quite rare to develop a phobia of cars or guns as they’ve existed only recently so we’re not biologically prepared to learn fear responses to them.
E - seligman says animals r genetically prepared to learn associations between fear + stimulus that were life threatening in evolutionary past like snakes
I - Means behavioural explanations alone can’t explain phobia development
Two process model evaluation (cognitive)
P - phobias have cognitive aspects that can’t be explained in a traditionally behaviour framework
E - eg person who thinks they might die if trapped in lift might become extremely anxious and this triggers their lift phobia
E - shows cognitive elements, which we r significant within phobias, disregarded by 2 process model
I - irrational thinking involved in phobia development, explaining why cognitive therapies can more successful when treating phobias
Systematic desensitisation
Method using classical conditioning to gradually reduce anxiety around phobic stimulus. Aim to replace feelings of anxiety by the relaxation (counterconditioning ) impossible for indiv to be afraid and relaxed at same time. relaxation prevents experiencing fear (reciprocal inhibition)
Systematic desensitisation 3 step process
- Anxiety hierarchy - put together by patient + therapist. List situations from most to least frightening
- Therapist teaches patient breathing techniques (if extreme, medication given- high anxiety)
- Patient exposed to phobic stimuli in in relaxed state
Flooding
Treatment involves immediate exposure of phobic stimulus without gradual buildup, don’t have option of avoidance and learns phobic stimulus is harmless (extinction) conditioned stimulus no longer produces previously conditioned response of fear
Flooding evaluation (cost effective/traumatising)
P - cost effective method of treatment
E - it’s comparable to other methods of treatments in terms of effectiveness as flooding is faster and efficient solution. Means patient could be treat faster and it could be cost effective for heath card provider
C - it’s traumatising for patients and creates high level of anxiety. Despite signing informed consent form, treatment could be more stressful than anticipated
E - result in patient leaving treatment incomplete, waste of money and time used
Flooding/symptoms desensitisation evaluation (symptom substitution)
P - common criticism of flooding is when 1 phobia disappears another may appear in place
E - phobia of snakes replaced by phobia of trains when treated
E - shows that flooding only solves the surface problem that phobias are and not the root of phobias
I - symptom substitution s flooding isn’t effective at treating phobias and limits it’s usefulness
Flooding evaluation (certain phobias)
P - highly effective for simple phobias, but less effective for other types like social phobia
E - some psychologist sugges social phobias caused by irrational thinking + not by unpleasant experience
E - more complex phobias can’t be treated by behaviourist treatment + may be more responsive to other forms of treatment like CBT for irrational thinking
I - limits usefulness and weakens treatment as can’t be utilised for all phobia types
Systematic desensitisation evaluation (supporting evidence)
P - research demonstrating effectiveness of phobia treatment
E - McGrath et al (1990) found 75% patients with phobias successfully treated using systematic desensitisation
E - shows systematic desensitisation is effective in phobias treatment
