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Biopsychology Flashcards

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1
Q

Nervous System

A

Consists of the central nervous system + the peripheral nervous system. specialised network of cells in body + primary internal communication system

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2
Q

Central Nervous System

A

Consists of brain + spinal cord and is origin of all complex commands + decisions. passes messages to and from brain and connects nerves to PNS.

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3
Q

Brain

A

centre of all conscious awareness. cerebral cortex is highly developed in humans + is what distinguished out higher mental
functions from those of animals. It is divided into 2 hemispheres.

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4
Q

Spinal Cord

A

extension of brain. responsible for reflex actions like pulling hand away from hot plate. passes messages to + from brain and connects nerves to PNS.

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5
Q

Peripheral Nervous System

A

Sends info to CNS from outside world and transmits messages from CNS to muscles + glands in body. does this via millions of neurons (nerve cells) + divided into ANS and SNS.

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6
Q

Somatic Nervous System

A

Transmits info from sensory receptor cells in sense organs to CNS. receives info from CNS, direct muscles to contract.voluntary effect

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7
Q

Automatic Nervous System

A

Transmits info to + from internal bodily organs. ‘autonomic’ as system operated involuntarily. 2 main divisions; sympathetic + parasympathetic nervous systems.
Governs vital functions of body like breathing, heart rate

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8
Q

Parasympathetic Nervous System

A

division of ANS which controls relaxed state (rest and digest), conserving resources and promoting digestion + metabolism. parasympathetic branch words in opposition to sympathetic branch of ANS. Only 1 is active at any time.

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9
Q

Sympathetic Nervous System

A

division of ANS which activates internal organs for vigorous activities + emergencies, like fight or flight response. consists of nerves that control, like, increased breathing, + decreased digestive activity. sympathetic branch works in opposition to parasympathetic branch of ANS.

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10
Q

2 functions of nervous system

A
  • collect, process + respond to info in environ
  • coordinate working of diff organs + cells in body
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11
Q

2 hemisphere

A

(right /left) = each hemisphere has 4 lobes - parietal, frontal, occipital + temporal

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12
Q

Neuron

A

basic building blocks of nervous system, neurons r nerve cells that process + transmit messages thro electrical and chemical signals.

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13
Q

Sensory Neurone

A

carry messages from sensory receptors (PNS) to spinal cord (CNS). long dendrites and short axons. receptors of sensory neurons located near/on body surface

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14
Q

Relay Neurone

A

connect sensory neurons to motor/other relay neurons to communicate. short dendrites + short axons. common type of neurons in CNS + located in brain, spinal cord + visual system

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15
Q

Motor Neurone

A

connect CNS to (PNS) effectors like muscles by carrying impulses from spinal cord + brain to effectors. short dendrites + long axons.

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16
Q

Cell body

A

factory of neuron. contains nucleus + produces all necessary proteins that neuron requires to function

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17
Q

Nucleas

A

contains genetic material within neuron.

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18
Q

Dendrites

A

branch-like features protrude from cell body. carry nerve impulses from neighbouring neurons to cell body.

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19
Q

Axon

A

carries electrical impulse from cell body, down length of neuron. covered in myelin sheath.

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20
Q

Myelin Sheath

A

fatty layer, surrounds + protects axon. helps to speed up electrical transmission of impulse.

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21
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A

gaps between myelin sheath. purpose is to speed up transmission of impulse, by forcing it to ‘jump’ across gaps along axon

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22
Q

Terminal Buttons

A

located at end of axon. communicate with next neuron that’s on other side of synaptic cleft.

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23
Q

synaptic transmission

A

process where neighbouring neurons communicate with each other by sending chemical messages across the synaptic cleft them separates them

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24
Q

Neurotransmitter

A

Brain chemicals released from synaptic vesicles relay signals across the synapse from 1 neuron to another. found in spinal cord, brain + glands. own specific molecular structure fits perfectly into post-synaptic receptor site.

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25
Q

Excitation

A

neurotransmitter, like adrenaline, increases positive charge of postsynaptic neuron. increases likelihood that neuron will fire + pass on electrical impulse.

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26
Q

Inhabitation

A

neurotransmitter, like serotonin, makes change of postsynaptic neuron more negative. decreases likelihood that neuron will fire + pass on electrical signal.

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27
Q

Synapse

A

junction between 2 neurons. includes presynaptic neuron, synaptic clef and postsynaptic receptor site.

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28
Q

Synapse Cleft

A

space between pre-synaptic and post-synaptic neuron.

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29
Q

Synaptic vecticles

A

Small sacs on l end of a presynaptic neuron that contain neurotransmitters that will be released into synapse.

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30
Q

Pre synaptic

A

the transmitting neurone before synaptic cleft

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31
Q

Post synaptic

A

the neurone that’s receiving info at synapse

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32
Q

Post synaptic receptor site

A

receptor on post-synaptic neuron. neurotransmitter locks into a specific receptor on post-synaptic neuron + triggers electrical impulse in post-synaptic neuron.

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33
Q

Synaptic Transmission Process

A

1) electrical impulse travels down pre-synaptic neuron, along axon + to
terminal buttons of that neurone
2) When electrical impulse gets to terminal branches it stimulates synaptic vesicles. synaptic vesicles contain neurotransmitters - chemicals.
3) neurotransmitters r released from synaptic vesicles + travel across synapse. when electrical impulse has been changed to a chemical impulse.
4) neurotransmitters cross synapse to get to dendrites of post-synaptic neuron.
5) There r receptors on dendrites of post-synaptic neuron. receptors known as lock, in lock + key theory.
6) If neurotransmitters (key) are correct shape, they can fit into receptors on dendrites of post-synaptic neuron.
7) connection between neurotransmitter + receptor can cause electrical impulse to be created in dendrites of post-synaptic neuron. depends on whether neurotransmitters are excitatory\ inhibitory.
8) If neurotransmitter is excitatory it is more likely that electrical impulse will travel down post-synaptic neuron + process can begin all over again.
9) neurotransmitter doesn’t always fit into receptors. If this the case, there won’t be no electrical impulse created in 2nd neuron.
10) process is known as synaptic transmission.

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34
Q

2 effects of neurotransmitters in post synaptic neurone

A

Excitatory neurotransmitter Increase the likelihood of post synaptic neuron firing - excitation
Inhibitory neurotransmitter Decrease the likelihood of post synaptic neuron firing - inhibition (neuron becomes negatively charged)

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35
Q

summation

A

Decide whether post-synaptic neuron fires. excitatory + inhibitory influences are summed up. If net effect on postsynaptic neuron is inhibitory\exhibitory, post-synaptic neuron is less/more likely to fire. action potentials (nerve impulses) of postsynaptic neuron r only triggered if sum of excitatory + inhibitory signals at any 1 time reaches threshold

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36
Q

Endocrine System

A

1 of body’s major info systems
instructs glands to release hormones directly into blood stream. hormones r carried towards target organs in body.

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37
Q

Glands

A

organ in body that syntheses (makes) substances like hormones.

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38
Q

Hormones

A

Chemical substances circulate in bloodstream + only affect any cell w receptors of hormone in target organs/whole body. produced in large quantities but disappear quickly. effects r very powerful.

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39
Q

pituitary gland ( hormone released, location+ impact)

A
  • lots
  • brain
  • master gland as hormones released by pituitary gland controls + stimulate hormone release from other glands in endocrine system
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40
Q

Pineal gland ( hormone released + impact)

A
  • melatonin
  • responsible for important biological rhythms
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41
Q

Thyroid gland ( hormone released + impact)

A
  • thyroxin
  • responsible for regulating metabolism
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42
Q

Testes ( hormone released + impact)

A
  • testosterone
  • responsible for development of male sex characteristics during puberty while also promoting muscle growth
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43
Q

Ovaries ( hormone released + impact)

A
  • oestrogen
  • controls regulation of female reproductive system, like pregnancy
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44
Q

Adrenal gland ( hormone released + impact)

A
  • adrenaline
  • responsible for flight or fight response
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45
Q

Pancreas ( hormone released + impact)

A
  • insulin
  • allows body to use glucose from carbohydrates in food for energy/ store glucose for future use. helps keep blood sugar level stable
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46
Q

Flight or fight Response

A

when animal stressed. body psychologically aroused in readiness to fight an agressor or or flee. reflexive response

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47
Q

Fight or flight response Process

A

1) hypothalamus recognises there’s threat in environ
2) ANS activates sympathetic nervous system
3) sympathetic nervous system tells pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
4) sends message to adrenal gland
5) adrenal gland responds by releasing adrenaline
6) adrenaline travels via bloodstream + targets organs in body, have adrenaline receptors causes many physical changes to occur
8) process is fight or flight response + allows body to act
9) Once threat passed, parasympathetic nervous system brings body back to normal, resting, functions

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48
Q

Sympathetic State - Adrenaline Present

A
  • increases heart rate
  • increases breathing rate
  • dilates pupils
  • inhibits digestion
  • inhibits saliva production
  • contracts rectum
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49
Q

Parasympathetic State - Adrenaline not present

A
  • decreases heart rate
  • decreases breathing rate
  • constricts pupils
  • stimulates digestion
  • stimulates saliva production
  • releases rectum
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50
Q

Adrenaline Evaluation - limited explanation

A

P - Some psychs suggest humans engage in initial ‘freeze’ response.
E - research suggests 1st response to danger is to avoid confrontation altogether i.e., freeze.
E - During freeze de response animals+ humans are hyper-vigilant, while they appraise situation to decide best course of action for that particular threat.
I - suggests fight or flight response considered is limtted as it doesn’t explain all outcomes.

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51
Q

Adrenaline Evaluation - androcentrism

A

P - Early research into fight or flight response was typically conducted on males.
E - known as androcentrism. Researchers assumed that findings could be generalised to females.
E - e.g of beta bias, under-estimating differences between sexes reducing
explanatory power of fight or flight response.
I - shows that fight or flight explanation can’t applied to all indiv in same way.

52
Q

Adrenaline Evaluation - biological reductionist

A

P - fight or flight response is biologically reductionist.
E - attempts to explain human behav based on role of adrenaline + effect of sympathetic nervous system.
E - doesn’t account for other elements that could influence response to stressful situation like cognitive processes.
I - may be too limited explanation.

53
Q

Hemispher Lateralisation

A

Some mental processes in brain r mainly specialised to left/right hemisphere. Language is specialised to left + visual-motor tasks.

54
Q

Controlateral

A

opposite side of body to brain hemisphere that controls it

55
Q

Corpus Collosum

A

Broad band of fibres joins 2 hemispheres of brain, this allows communication to occur.

56
Q

Split Brain Research

A

series of studies, began in 1960’s involving epileptic patients experiencing surgical separation of hemispheres of brain. allowed researchers to investigate extent to which brain function is lateralised.

57
Q

Brain Lateralisation investigated

A

damage to brain means mental processes mainly done by 1 hemisphere r assessed as task related to a particular hemisphere can’t be done. cutting corpus callosum allowed to investigate brain lateralisation.

58
Q

Visual Field and Hemisphere

A

1) info from left/right visual field is processed by right/left hemisphere
2) language lateralised to left hemisphere + right side of body controlled by left hemisphere
3) left hand side of body controlled by right hemisphere
4) cutting of corpus callosum means info can’t be passed between hemispheres

59
Q

Split Brain Research - Sperry

A

devised procedure to investigate hemispheric lateralisation. indiv focuses on central dot so info can be presented to either left/ right visual field. means info is only processed by 1 hemisphere + see what functions r controlled by each hemisphere

60
Q

Split Brain Research Findings (describing what u see)

A

left hemisphere for speech + language. presented to left visual field, indiv can’t say it due to lack of language centres in right hemisphere. if imagine drawn + presented in right visual field, they let left hemisphere on secret + word can be said

61
Q

Split Brain Research Findings ( recognition by touch)

A

using left hand, controlled by right hemisphere, can pick out matching object to word shown. demonstrates although they can’t say they seen anything, they unable to identify word shown in left visual in another way

62
Q

Split Brain Research Findings (composite words)

A

2 words r presented simultaneously, 1 on either side of visual field e.g. Key - Ring, patient would write with left hand which is controlled by right hemisphere, word key.
say word ring from speaking left hemisphere so left hand would know what to write as right hemisphere, which controls left hand, is “let in on secret.

63
Q

Split Brain Research Findings (recognising faces)

A

right hemisphere dominant for recognising faces. When asked to match face series of other faces, pic processed by the right hemisphere (left visual field) was consistently selected, while pic presented to left hemisphere consistently ignored.
When composite picture made of 2 diff halves of face was presented - 1 to each hemisphere - left hemisphere dominated for verbal description while right hemisphere dominated when matching pictures

64
Q

Split brain research Evaluation - overstated differences

A

P - diferences in function may be overstated
E - Although verbal + non-verbal labels can
sometimes be applied to summarise diff between hemispheres, modern neuroscientists would contend that the actual distinction is less clear-cut and messier
E - In normal brain 2 hemispheres r in constant communication + much behav
typically associated, with 1 hemisphere can be performed by other when situation requires it
I - Research into plasticity + functional recovery demonstrates lateralisation isn’t always clear/ permanent

65
Q

Split brain research Evaluation - population validity

A

P - issues w generalising findings of research from split-brain patients.
E - only 11 patients took part in all variations of permanent procedure, all w history of epileptic. Some parti also experienced more
disconnection than others thro surgery.
E - may caused unique changes in brain that may have influenced findings. control group was made of 11 people w no history of epilepsy which may have been inappropriate
I - limits extent to findings can be generalised to normal brains, reducing the validity of conclusions.

66
Q

Split brain research Evaluation - strong methodology

A

P - strengths to methodology used to research lateralisation.
E - experiments with split-brain patients had highly standardised procedures. Patients asked to stare at a eiven”ficition point whilst one eye was blindfolded.
E - image projected flashed up for 1/10th of second, meaning split-brain patient wouldn’t have time to move eye across image so wouldn’t spread across both visual fields. allowed Sperry to vary aspects of basic procedure + ensure only 1 hemisphere was receiving info at time (high control of variables)
I - meant Sperry developed very useful + well controlled procedure

67
Q

Plasticity

A

(neuroplasticity/cortical remapping) describes brains tendency to change + adapt (functionally and physically) due to experience + new learning.
As we age, rarely used connections are deleted + frequently used connections r strengthened (synaptic pruning). At any time, existing neural connections can change, or new neural connections can be formed due to learning + experience

68
Q

Maguire at al 2002

A

studied brains of London Taxi drivers + found significantly more volume of grey matter in the posterior hippocampus than in a matched control group.
The posterior hippocampus is part of brain associated with development of spatial + navigational skills.
As part of training, London cabbies take a test ‘The Knowledge’ to assess recall of city streets + possible routes. learning experience appears to alter structure of taxi driver’s brains. longer been in job more pronounced was structural difference.

69
Q

Kuhn 2014

A

control group compared to video game group, had to play Super Mario for least 30 min a day for 2 months. significant increase in grey matter in numerous brain areas for video group. brain areas were associated spatial navigation, strategic planning, working memory + motor performance. All of tasks involved in playing video games.
increase wasn’t found in those in control group who didn’t play any video games. demonstrates plasticity within brain.

70
Q

meditation

A

shown to produce changes in brain structure. Monks, who meditated compared to student volunteers w no previous experience w meditation. Monks found to have greater gamma wave activation than controls while meditating. Gamma waves coordinate neuron activity in brain.
demonstrates there were short term changes in brain functions. However, monks were also found to have greater gamma wave activation before meditation, compared to controls. suggests more permanent changes brought about due to meditation

71
Q

Functional Recovery

A

form of plasticity. Following damage thro trauma, brain has ability to redistribute/ transfer functions usually performed by a damaged area(s) to other undamaged area(s).
brain learns to COMPENSATE for area w lost
function. process can occur quickly (spontaneous recovery) + then slow after several weeks or months.
At this point indiv may require rehabilitation therapy to further recovery.brain rewires + reorganises itself by forming new synaptic connections close to damaged area.
Secondary neural pathways that wouldn’t typically be able to carry out certain functions r activated/ ‘unmasked’ to enable functioning to continue.

72
Q

Functional Recovery supporting structural changes

A

1) Axonal sprouting: growth of new nerve endings that connect w other undamaged nerve cells to form new neuronal pathways.
2) Reformation of blood vessels.
3) Recruitment of homologous (similar) areas on opposite side of brain to perform specific tasks.

73
Q

Factors affecting functional recovery

A
  • how much people want to recover
  • tiredness level
  • stress level
  • alcohol/drug intake
  • age (young indiv recover faster)
  • gender (women recover faster)
74
Q

Functional Recovery Evaluation - animal
studies

A

P - supporting research from animal studies. E - sewed eye of a kitten shut + analysed
brains cortical responses. found area of visual cortex associated shut eye wasn’t idle but processed info from open eye.
E - shows CIN that cortical remapping of this brain area had taken place.
C - some argue research like this may be unethical + question ability to generalise findings from cats to humans due to complexity of human brains in comparison to felines.

75
Q

Functional Recovery Evaluation - age

A

P - tends to reduce w age.
E - brain has greater propensity for reorganisation in childhood as it’s constantly adapting to new experiences and learning.
E - suggests those who r older + suffer brain trauma may need more additional support for functional recovery to take place.
I - research can help programmes to focus on those most vulnerable to minimised plasticity

76
Q

Functional Recovery Evaluation - maladaptive consequences

A

P - can have maladaptive consequences.
E - 60-80% of amputees develop phantom limb syndrome - continued experience of sensations in missing limb as if it were still there.
E - sensations r unpleasant + painful due to cortical reorganisation in somatosensory cortex that occurs due to limb loss
I - may prevent people from having the will to recover due to fear affecting functional recovery

77
Q

Localisation of function

A

argued specific areas of brain r associated w particular physical + psychological functions. Damage to these areas cause consequences for behav.

78
Q

Cerebral Cortex

A

two hemispheres surrounded by cerebral cortex which covers inner parts of brain. about 3mm thick + what separates us from other animals because human cortex is much more developed. cortex of both hemispheres is subdivided into 4 lobes, named after bones beneath they lie: frontal, parietal, occipital lobe + temporal lobe.
Each lobe is associated w diff function.

79
Q

Motor Cortex (location, role, damage) - left + right cortex

A
  • at back of frontal lobe
  • control voluntary movement in contralateral side of body
  • loss of fine movement
80
Q

Somatosensory cortex (location, role, damage) - left + right cortex

A
  • at front of parietal lobe
  • Represents sensory info from skin (touch, heat, pressure). more sensitive area, more space it takes up in somatosensory cortex
  • loss of senses
81
Q

Visual Cortex (location, role, damage) - left + right cortex

A
  • in occipital love
  • info from right visual field is sent to left visual cortex + vice versa
  • loss of specific areas of visual field
82
Q

Auditory Cortex (location, role, damage) - left + right cortex

A
  • in temporal lobe
  • analyses speech based info
  • partial hearing loss
83
Q

Wernicke’s area (location, role, damage) - left hemisphere

A
  • in left temporal lobe
  • responsible for language comprehension
  • produce nonsense words (speak fluently but words r meaningless to them)
84
Q

Broca’s Area (location, role, damage) - left hemisphere

A
  • small area of left frontal lobe
  • responsible for speech production
  • slow speech that lacks fluency
85
Q

Localisation of function Evaluation - brain scanning evidence

A

P- brain scanning evidence to support functions r localised.
E - used brain scans to demonstrate Wernicke’s area was active during listening task + Broca’s area was active during reading task.
E - suggests these parts of brain have diff functions.
I - increasing validity of concept of localisation.

86
Q

Localisation of function Evaluation - phineas gage

A

P- case study evidence to support that functions r localised.
E - Phineas Gage involved in accident where left frontal lobe was damaged, and personality changed - became quick- tempered and rude
E - suggests personality + temperament is localised within the frontal
I - research isn’t fully developed bout what each lobe controls

87
Q

Localisation of function Evaluation
- functional recovery

A

P - Functional recovery shows localisation of function can change.
E - girl who lives w 1/2 brain as after ilness/accident rest of brain appears able to reorganise itself in attempt to recover lost function.
E - supports that holistic view of functioning rather than localisation view.
I - reduces validity of theory as diff areas associated to diff functions may be able to perform functions associated other areas

88
Q

FMRIs

A

detecting changes in blood oxygenation and blood flow - indicate increased neural activity. People asked to do task and it’s observed where brain activity is. When brain area is more active, consumes more oxygen to meet increased demand of blood flow directed to the active area (haemodynamic response). produces 3-dimentional images (activation maps) showing which parts of the brain are Involved in particular mental process - important for establishing localisation of function.

89
Q

FMRIs evaluation (4)

A
  • non invasive = doesn’t rely on radiation use and safe. appropriate method
  • high spatial resolution = show detail by millimetre . provide clear pic of brain activity localised
  • expensive = only capture pic if indiv is still so limited appropriateness
  • poor temporal resolution = 5 sec lag between initial neural activity + image. not truly represent moment to moment activity
90
Q

EEGs

A

records changes in electrical activity using electrodes attached to scalp. scan recording represents brainwave patterns, generated from action of millions of neurons, providing overall account of brain activity. often used as diagnostic tool as unusual arrhythmic patterns may indicate neurological abnormalities e.g. epilepsy.

91
Q

EEgs Evaluation (4)

A
  • invaluable for diagnosis conditions = identify epilepsy + understanding sleep stages. appropriate method
  • high temporal resolution. detect resolution of a millisecond. accurate moment to moment activity
  • info from many neurons. generalised signal produces from neurons so diffuse to know exact source of neural activity. can’t distinguish activity of diff but adjacent neurons
  • no complete pic of brain activity. monitor electrical activity of outer layers. can’t recall electrical activity in deeper brain sites
92
Q

ERPs

A

records changes in electrical activity using electrodes attached to scalp but uses specific stimulus (sensory, cognitive/ motor) to see where activity is. Using statistical averaging technique, all extraneous brain activity from original EEG recording is filtered out leaving only those responses related to specific stimulus/ task. Research revealed many diff forms of ERP and how these r linked to cognitive processes.

93
Q

ERPs Evaluation

A
  • specific measurement of neural processes. more specific data than using raw eeg data.
  • high temporal resolution. resolution of a millisecond. accurate moment to moment activity
  • lacks standardisation in methodology between studies. difficult to confirm finding in studies. low reliability of information of brain structure + function
  • have background noise + extraneous material must be eliminated. not easy to achieve. limits appropriateness
94
Q

Post Mortems

A

examine abnormalities in structure of brain which try to explain psychological abnormalities people have before death. may involve comparison w neurotypical (normal) brain to ascertain extent of difference.

95
Q

Post Mortem Evaluation (4)

A
  • provided foundation for understanding of brain. broca + wernicke relied on PM = improved medical knowledge + helped to generate hypotheses for further study
  • in depth study. detailed examinations + measurements of deep brain structure eg hippothalamus not measurable brain scans. knowledge of brain can’t be gained from less invasive options
  • causation may be issue. observed damage may not be linked to deficits under review but to other trauma or decay. limits appropriateness
  • raise ethical issues of consent. before death patients needs to give informed consent but reason for psychs investigating brain. may not be able to provide informed consent (capacity)
96
Q

Endogenous Pacemakes

A

internal body clocks regulate many of biological rhythms like influence of suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) on sleep-wake cycle.

97
Q

Exogenous Zeitgebers

A

External cues may affect/ entrain biological rhythms, like influence of light on sleep-wake cycle. Zeitgebers set body clock thro entrainment. This is synchronisation of
body to environ. With free running body clock, when there r no external cues, we have sleep-wake cycle, not 24 hrs. External + internal cues work together to determine 24-hr cycle.

98
Q

SCN + Pineal Gland

A
  • endogenous pacemaker.
  • located in hypothalamus
  • influential in maintaining circadian rhythms.
  • regulated by light from environ. receives info about light, even when eyes closed.
  • passes info on day lengths + light to pineal gland.
  • During night pineal gland produces melatonin = chemical inducing sleep + inhibited during periods of wake.
99
Q

research

A

Decoursey - destroyed scn connections of chipmunks and returned to habitat. Found sleep wake check disappeared so shows importance of scn
Ralph - bred mutant ha,steers w 20 hrs sleep wake cycle + transplanted brains into normal hamsters. Cycles defaulted to 20 hrs

100
Q

light

A

resets SCN. affects hormone secretion + blood circulation.
Campbell + Murphy showed light can be detected by skin receptor sites on body even when same info not received by eyes. 15 parti woken at various times + light pad shone on back of knees. researchers produced deviation in partis’ usual sleep-wake cycles + was up to 3 hrs in some cases. suggests light is powerful exogenous zeitgeber that influence brain + body.

101
Q

social cues

A

schedules are imposed on us by society + r key influences on sleep wake cycle e.g. times to eat. Entrainment of body following jet lag is quicker when people eat + sleep when local culture do, rather than responding to own body + feelings of hunger and fatigue.

102
Q

Endogenous Pacemaker + Exogenous Zeitgebers Evalution

A

P - methodological issues in exogenous zeitgebers research.
E - Campbell + Murphy’s study
(1998) hasn’t been replicated + critical may have been some light exposure to participant’s eyes - a major confounding variable. Isolating one exogenous zeitgeber (light) in this way does not give insight into the many other zeitgebers that influence the sleep/ wake cycle. This suggests that some studies may have ignored or underplayed the way in which different exogenous zeitgebers interact.

103
Q

Endogenous Pacemaker + Exogenous Zeitgebers Evalution

A

The use of animal research does allow us to establish cause and effect which is an aim of science. In DeCoursey’s study the chipmunks had their SCN connections destroyed and were then released into their habitat. It is likely that their inability to function when released was the result of what had happened to their SCN. This would be unethical to conduct with humans and would mean that we would not know about the effect of the SCN on the sleep-wake cycle had this research not been completed.

104
Q

Endogenous Pacemaker + Exogenous Zeitgebers Evalution

A

P - Research aims to isolate + study effects of exogenous zeitgebers has led to practical treatment applications.
E - effective treatment for Seasonal Affective Disorder (SADs) is phototherapy; a lightbox stimulates strong light in morning and evening (thought to reset melatonin levels).
E - relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers (Eastman et al: 1988).
I - By aiming to study effect of an exogenous zelitgeber like light it makes it simpler to develop specific treatments to help indiv.

105
Q

Infradian Rhythm

A

Bodily cycle occurs less than once in 24 hrs (circadian rhythm)

106
Q

Menstrual cycle

A

eg of monthly rhythms. refers to time between 1st day of a woman’s period, when lining shed, to day before next period. vary between 23 + 36 days, most common is 28 days.
each cycle, rising levels of estrogen cause ovary to develop an egg + release it. release of egg - ovulation + accompanied by oestrogen peak for 16-32 hours.
After ovulation, progesterone levels increase. helps womb lining to grow thicker, readying body for pregnancy.
If pregnancy doesn’t occur, egg is absorbed into body, womb lining comes away and leaves body. This menstrual flow.

107
Q

Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)

A

depressive disorder- seasonal pattern of onset. main symptoms - persistent low mood + general lack of activity and interest in life. referred to as winter blues = symptoms r triggered during winter months when n.o of daylight hrs becomes shorter. particular type of infradian rhythm called circannual rhythm, subject to yearly cycle. Melatonin implicated in cause of SAD. During night, pineal gland secretes melatonin until morning when light increased. in winter - lack of light means secretion process continues longer. Knock on effect on serotonin production linked to depression symptoms

108
Q

Stern and McClintock’s Research

A

aim - Investigate how menstral cycle may synchronise due to influence female pheromones
procedure - pheromones sample collected from 9 women at diff menstrual cycle stages from pad worn for 8hrs. rubbed on upper lip of other parti.
findings - 68%women experienced changed to their cycle, brought close to cycles of ordour donor
conclusions - cycle synchronise due to female pheromone

109
Q

Infradian Rhythms Evaluation (ancestor/evolutionary)

A

P - may have been advantageous for female ancestors to menstruate together + become pregnant around same fine.
E - meant offspring could be cared for collectively within social group, increasing offspring’s chances of survival. would have evolutionary advantages.
C - alternative research questions validity of evolutionary perspective. Too many females cycing together in social group produce competition for highest quality males as females want best potential genes for offspring.
E - Competition likely lower genetic fitness of potential offspring as highest quality males may be “taken”. this point of view, avoidance of synchrony would appear to be most adaptive evolutionary strategy + 1 would be naturally selected

110
Q

Infradian Rhythms Evaluation (menstrual cycle)

A

P - Commentators argue there r many factors changing a woman’s menstrual cycle + act as confounding variables in research ,
E - eg stress.
E - means l any supposed pattern of synchronisation, like in McClintock’ study, is no more than would have been expected to occur by chance.
I - suggests important aspects of synchronisation studies may lack validity

111
Q

Infradian Rhythms Evaluation (pheromones)

A

P - pheromones role in human behav is speculative + inconclusive.
E - In Stern + McClintock’s study pheromones taken from armpits of ‘odour donors’ + given to parti.
E -not reflective of how pheromones work in real world.
I - questions validity of study and further questions true role of pheromones in human behav.

112
Q

Sleep cycles

A

5 stages - occur nightly, span roughly 90 min + cycle continues thro night.Each stage characterised by diff brainwave activity - monitored using EEG.
Stages 1 + 2 r light sleep where person can be easily woken. start of sleep brainwave activity becomes slower + more rhythmic (alpha waves),these become even slower as sleep becomes deeper (theta waves).
Stages 3 + 4 involve delta waves, slower still + greater amplitude (change) than earlier wave patterns. deep sleep + difficult to rouse someone .
stage 5, REM sleep, body is paralysed yet brain activity speeds up significantly in a manner, resembles awake brain. Rapid eye movement describes fast, jerky activity of eyes under eyelids. REM activity during sleep is highly correlated with experience of dreaming.

113
Q

basic rest activity cycle

A

90-minute cycle found during sleep continues during day.
Rather than moving through sleep stages, move progressively from state of alertness to physiological fatigue.
human mind can focus for a period of 90 min + towards end of 90 minutes body begins to run out of resources, resulting in loss of concentration, fatigue and hunger.
explains why we have a coffee break at 10.30 am and why cat naps are more likely to happen mid-afternoon as it means the morning or afternoon is split into two 90-minute cycles.

114
Q

Ericsson

A

Ericsson et al (1993) - best violinists tend to practice for 3 sessions during course of day, each session lasted no more than 90 min + break between each in order to ‘recharge’.

115
Q

Ultradian rhythms Evalution - individual difference

A

P - individual differences in sleep stages linked to biology.
E - Tucker assessed sleep in parti in strictly controlled conditions focusing on sleep duration, time to fall asleep + amount of time in each sleep stage. found large indiv diff, showed up consistently across 8 nights. For deep sleep (stages 3 + 4) indiv diff were particularly significant.
E - shows differences between parti weren’t driven by circumstance but by biology.
I - indiv diff may mean difficult to generalise results of such studies to wider population.

116
Q

Ultradian rhythms Evalution - REM

A

P - evidence to support qualitatively diff stages in sleep.
E - monitored sleep patterns of 9 parti in sleep lab + found evid for sleep stages, specifically REM sleep.
E - REM activity during sleep correlated w dreaming; brain activity varied based on how vivid dreams were; parti woken during dreaming reported accurate recall of dreams.
I - study suggests REM (dreaming) sleep is distinct ultradian rhythm + an important component of ultradian sleep cycle.

117
Q

Ultradian rhythms Evalution - basic rest activity cycle

A

P - supportive evid for BRAC
E - Ericsson found talented + successful violinists practised for 3 sesh daily lasting 90 min + break out between sesh to recharge
E - shows human kind can focus for period of 90 min however towards end of 90 min body ran out of all resources, causing loss in concentration + fatigue.
I - BRAC effective + has real life application

118
Q

Circadian Rhythm

A

any cycle lasts bout 24 hours. Nearly all organisms have a biological representation of the 24-hour day.optimise organism’s physiology (bodily functions) + behav to best meet varying demands of day + night cycle. regulated by internal system like release of hormones, metabolic rate + body temp

119
Q

Sleep wake cycle

A

Light + dark provide signals bout when to be awake + asleep. dips and rises at different. strongest sleep drive (want to sleep) occurs between 2 - 4 am and 1 - 3 pm (post lunch).
Sleepiness less intense w circadian dips if enough sleep the night before.Homeostasis controls need to sleep. If need more energy body tells us we need to sleep. why we get more tired as number of hours we been awake increases.factors combine to control allow us to sleep during night + be awake during day. However, effect of daylight (exogenous zeitgeber) has important effect on when we feel drowsy + awake.

120
Q

siffre

A

Aim - investigate effects of biological rhythms
Procedure - deprived of exposure to natural light & sound but access to roof
Results - resurfaced in Mid step after 2 months thinking it to be august
Conclusions - free running biological rhythms settled to one - continued to fall asleep/awake regular

121
Q

aschoff + wever

A

Aim - investigate effects of biological rhythms
Procedure - parti spent 4 weeks in ww2 bunker deprived light
Results - all but 1 parti displayed circadian rhythms between 24/25 hrs
Conclusions - sleep/wake cycle may be longer than 24 hrs but entrained by EZ (meals)

122
Q

folkard

A

Aim - investigate influence of environmental cues on biological clock
Procedure - group of 12 lived in cave for 3 weeks. Went to bed at 11:45 & woke 7:45 on clock. Researcher speeded up clock from 24-22 hrs
Results - only 1 parti able to adjust to new regime
Conclusions - strong circadian rhythms can’t easily be overridden by changed in external environ. A

123
Q

Hormone Production

A

Hormone release follows circadian rhythm. Melatonin produced + released from pineal gland. Melatonin levels peak during darkness hrs. By activating synapses in brain, melatonin encourages feelings of sleep. When dark, more melatonin produced, and when light, less melatonin produced.

124
Q

Body Temperature

A

best indicators of sleep wake cycle. lowest at about 4 am + highest at 6pm; varying by around 2 degrees from 36 in morning to 38 in evening. Sleep occurs when body temp drops. temp rises during last few hrs of sleep + causes people to feel alert in morning. Small drops in temp occur between 2 + 4 pm, can account for why people sometimes feel sleepy during time. some evidence to suggest body temp may have effect on mental abilities: warmer we r (internally), better cognitive performance. found improved performance on IQ tests when parti assessed at 7pm as opposed to 2pm + 9am.

125
Q

Circadian Rhythms Evalution - poor control

A

P - poor control in research studies.
E - Siffre had lamp turned on from when woke up until went to bed. assumed artificial lighting would have no effect on free running clock.
E - However, adjusted parti’ circadian rhythms from 22 to 28 hrs using dim lighting. I - Using artificial light may be like taking drug resets parti’ biological clocks.

126
Q

Circadian Rhythms Evalution - practical application to drugs

A

P - research has practical application to drug treatments.
E - As circadian rhythms coordinate body’s basic has implications for pharmacokinetics - action of drugs on body + how well they r absorbed + distributed.
E - Research shows there r times during day + night when drugs r more effective.
I - Guidelines been developed for timing of dosing for range of drugs including treatments for cancer + epilepsy.

127
Q

Circadian Rhythms Evalution - practical application to work

A

P - practical application to shift work.
E - found shift workers experience lapse of concentration around 6 am (a circadian trough) so mistakes + accidents r more likely. E - may have economic implications in how best to manage worker productivity + safety. I - Shift changeovers could occur before circadian trough to reduce mistakes, meaning work wouldn’t have to be redone + reduce accidents so people can continue to work and contribute to economy

Psychology (10 decks)

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