Issues And Debates Flashcards
(84 cards)
1
Q
Gender bias
A
Psychological research/ theory that offers a view that doesn’t justifiably represent
experience and behav of men/ women (usually women). E.g the representation of one gender only.
2
Q
Bias
A
tendency to treat one indiv/group in a different way from others
3
Q
Universality
A
underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all, despite differences of experience and upbringing
4
Q
Alpha bias
A
attempt to exaggerate/overestimate the differences between genders
5
Q
Beta bias
A
attempt to downplay/underestimate the differences between genders
6
Q
Androcentrism
A
When men’s behav is standard against which women’s behav is compared. Female behav is often judged to be ‘abnormal’, ‘deficient’ ‘inferior’ by comparison
7
Q
Alpha e.g
A
Mate preference:
- men want youth + attractiveness genetically strong evolutionary POV)
- women want money + status to be provided for
Human biological programmes :
- men ‘biologically programmed’ to cheat
- women ‘biologically programmed’ survival of genes
8
Q
Beta e.g
A
Flight/fight:
- research from male animals + assumed universal behav to cheat
- female biology more recently found to inhibit f/f response to tend + befriend ( form defensive network)
Taylor et al (2000)
9
Q
Androcentrism e.g
A
Masochistic personality disorder - self sacrifice, rejecting opportunity for pleasure, playing the martyr, all e.g of female role
Pre- menstrual syndrome - stereotypes + trivialised female experience, social construction which medicalises female emotions, especially anger by explaining in hormone terms, male anger is often seen as a rational response to external pressures
10
Q
Gender bias evaluation (stereotypes)
A
P - Gender-biased research can create misleading assumptions of female behav, fail challenge neg stereotypes + validate discriminatory practices
E - using male behav as “standard” female behav like pre-menstrual syndrome/postnatal depression is seen as abnormal.
E - Psychological research may (unknowingly) provide way for male dominated society = deny women opportunities in workplace/wider society
I - gender bias in research not just methodological problem but may have damaging consequences for women in real world
11
Q
Gender bias evaluation (sexism)
A
P - may occur in the research process as a result of sexism
E - lack of women who are appointed at senior research levels
E -means female concerns may not be reflected in research questions that are asked
I - Denmark et al (1988) argued this means psychology may be guilty of supporting form of institutional sexism creating bias in theory + research.
12
Q
Gender bias evaluation (reduce impact of biological differences)
A
P - Feminist psychology accepts there are blological differences between males
+ females but looks at how to reduce these differences
E - Eagly (1978) claims that females are less effective leaders than males
E - research concluded there needed to be development of training programmes to reduce lack of female leaders in world
I - demonstrates how recognising gender bias can improve individuals’ experiences
13
Q
Ethnocentrism
A
- type of cultural bias involving judging other cultures by standards and values of one’s own culture
- lead to assumption of one ethnic group being superior and their behav is norm
14
Q
Cultural relativism
A
idea that human behav can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts
15
Q
Imposed etic
A
test, measure or theory devised in one culture that is used to explain behav in another culture
16
Q
Collectivist
A
Refers to cultures like India and China that said to be more conformist and group-orientated
17
Q
Individualist
A
Refers to Western countries (like US) that thought to be more independent
18
Q
Etic Approach
A
Studying behav across many cultures to find universal human behavs
19
Q
Culture bound syndromes
A
Groups of syndromes classified as treatable illnesses in certain cultures that are not recognised as such in the West
20
Q
Emic approach
A
Studying cultures in isolation by identifying behavs that are specific to that culture
21
Q
Problem about culture bias
A
- psychological research/theories is usually proposed by white middle-class men and performed historically on them
- despite restricted access to diff parts of world, many psychs believe they have discovered facts about human behav r universal. Ash and Miligram found diff results of their study in other countries
- from the viewpoint of a 1 culture, another culture may find the cultural differences abnormal
22
Q
E.g of ethnocentrism
A
Strange situation:
- suggested type b was ideal attachment due to behav demonstrated by American infant
- led to misinterpretation of child rearing practises in other cultures like Germany
- ss is usually inappropriate attachemnr measure for non-US kids
23
Q
E.g of imposed etic
A
Strange Situation :
- assuming ss was he norm for classifying attachment, Ainsworth imposed her own cultural understanding onto the rest of world
24
Q
Berry on the emic/Etic approach
A
- Etic approach - looks at universal behav from outside of given culture and attempt to describe + explain those behav that r universal
- emic approach - looks at behav from within given cultural and identifies behav specific to that culture
25
Berry’s argument
- psych has been guilty of imposing Etic approach. Theories/models/concepts thought to be universal despite coming from emic research from 1 single culture
- suggest psychs to be more mindful of cultural relativism of their research + discovered concepts may be understandable to culture discovered within. Recognition of cultural relativism can reduce culture bias
26
Cultural relativism and mental health e.g
Schizophrenic auditory hallucinations - (west Africa/ uk)
Anorexia - not found in non western cultures
Brain fag - difficulty concentrating, remembering + thinking (west Africa)
27
Culture bias evaluation (culturally diversity impacts)
P - heightened awareness of cultural diversity led to development of 'indigenous psychologies': theories drawing explicitly on particular experiences of people in diff cultural contexts.
E - 1 example is Afrocentrism, movement which suggests as all black people have their roots in Africa, theories about them must recognise African context of behavs + attitudes.
E - an example of emic approach, which emphasises uniqueness of every culture and looks at behav from inside particular cultural system
I - led to emergence of theories more relevant to the lives + cultures of people not only in Africa, but also those far removed from their African origins
28
Culture bias evaluation ( cultural relative research)
P - Not all psychological research is culturally relative as there are thought to be some universal behaviours
E - Caregiver infant interactions such as interactional synchrony are thought to be universal.
E - however contemporary psychs are more open-minded + well-travelled than previously, and have increased understanding of other cultures at both personal + professional level. E.g, international psych conferences increase exchange of ideas between psychologists
C- This has helped to reduce ethnocentrism in psychology and enabled a more nuanced understanding and appreciation of cultural relativism
29
Culture bias Evaluation (DSM)
P - There has been effective changes to minimise cultural relativism
E Since 1994 the DSM has included a short appendix on culture-bound syndromes found in other parts of the world. It now includes illnesses such as brain fag and koro. E - Early versions of the American DSM +B system ignored mental disorders that are found mainly or exclusively in non-American cultures showing that psychiatrists are becoming aware of their cultural bias and are working to reduce it
I - this allows dsm to accurately and reliably used for valid diagnosis
30
Ethical guidelines
set of principles set out by BPS to help psychologists behave honestly and with integrity.
31
Ethical issues
Arise when conflict exists between parti’s rights in research studies and
researcher’s goals to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data
32
Ethical implications
impact that psychological research - rights of other people, especially parti. This includes, at societal level influencing public policy and/or in way in which certain groups of people are regarded.
33
Socially sensitive studies
Studies where potential consequences/ implications either directly for parti in research or for class of indivs represented by research
34
Ethical implications - Milgram’s study
- Parti deceived and unable to give fully informed consent. Experi caused signif distress and Patti told/coerced to continue against their own will
- parti debriefed after exper and follow up interview taken 1 year later. Outcomes suggested no long term effects suffered
- Germans nor diff + helped change perceptions of hitler followers as ‘evil’. Argue that it had pos implication as useful to reduce neg labels attached to a nation. Understand how people can be made to obey
35
Ethical implications - Bowlby’s theory
- suggest kids form 1 special attachment bond, usually with mum, + must be formed in critical period. Attachment affects future relationships through internal working model
- contributed to development of child care practises ( pos implication). But encouraged view that mums place is at home with kids (neg implication as makes mum wanting to return to work after childbirth feel guilty)
36
Social sensitivity - Milgram
Argued study is socially sensitive - finding of study used to make people obey order they don’t want to follow = have severe implications
37
Socially sensitive- bowlby
Very sensitive- used to make mothers stay at home out of guilt + fear of judgment
38
Sieber and Stanley
Identified 4 aspects in scientific research process that raise ethical implication in socially sensitive research (should be considered before research carried out)
1) research question - must consider q carefully, whether damaging to indiv/group
2) methodology used - consider treatment of parti + confidentiality/anonymity rights
3) institutional context - mindful of how data is going to be used + research funding, why sponsors r funding + their uses for findings
4) findings’ interpretation + application - consider how findings might be interpreted + applied in real world ( inform policy, give scientific credence to prejudice + discrimination, have wrong purpose)
39
Cyril Burt
Used studies of identical twins to support his view - intelligence is largely genetic. Greatly influenced by hadow report (1926) led to the creation of 11+ (1944-1976). Generations of kids affected by exam despite big controversy whether burt falsified his research data
40
Ethical implication - societal benefit
P - Socially sensitive research can benefit society
E - promote greater sensitivity and understanding of underrepresented groups and issues
E - e.g effect that culture bias can have on schizophrenic diagnosis with regards to auditory hallucinations experienced by African + West Indian individuals
I - helps reduce prejudice and encourage acceptance demonstrating there are
positive outcomes of socially sensitive research.
41
Ethical implications evaluation - subjectively important research
P - important psychs are free to carry out whatever research seems important to them E - problematic if govern start passing laws to prohibit certain kinds of research, e.g
race-related research, due to there being issues of social sensitivity
E - real danger research will be stopped for political rather than ethical reasons
I - Researchers may need to be mindful benefits of socially sensitive research must outweigh costs
42
Ethical implications evaluation - discriminatory practises
P - Socially sensitive research been used to support discriminatory practices.
E - In US during 1920's and 1930's, a large n.o of US states approved laws leading to compulsory sterilisation of citizens that were deemed "feeble-minded" and drains on society.
E - based on research from psych and science that had suggested such people were "unfit to breed".
I - shows socially sensitive research has neg impacts as it has been used inappropriately to
"support" discriminatory practices.
43
Free will
Humans can make choices + aren’t determined by biological/external forces
44
Humanist approach + free will
Believe humans determine their own development thro use of free will as they r active agents
45
Determinism
View indivs behav is shaped/controlled by internal/external forces rather than indiv’s will to do something
46
Difference between hard/soft determinism
Hard - free will isn’t considered as cause but by external/internal forces beyond our control
Soft - conscious choices in absence of coercion + all events included
47
Biological determinism + e.g
Human behav caused by biological influence
Autonomic nervous system - periods of stress + anxiety
48
Environmental determinism + e.g
Human behav caused by environ features
Conditioning - classical + operant
49
Psychic determinism + e.g
Behav caused by unconscious conflicts beyond our control
Freud started some human behav can be determined by unconscious conflicts repressed in childhood/psychosexual stages
50
Causal explanations
IV manipulated to observed causal affect on DV - determinism (behav caused by something outside of indiv’s control + allows to control and predict human behav)
51
Free will + determinism Evaluation - everyday experience
P - Everyday experience gives impression we are constantly exercising free will
E - choices we make in any given day r believed to be made ourselves
E - give face validity to free will concept
I - research suggest those with internal locus of control tend to be more mentally healthy, suggest even thinking we have free will may have pos impact on behav
52
Free will + determinism Evaluation -
Legal system
P - 1 limitation of sternums is position of legal system on responsibility
E - in court of law, offended r held responsible for their actions. Suggestion is usually defendant exercise free will in committing crime
E - suggest in real world, determinist arguments don’t work
I - therefore, determinism like genes may be disregarded in legal setting
53
Free will + determinism Evaluation - determinism + science
P - determinism is consistent with science aims
E - hard determinist view says human behav is orderly + obey laws
E - psych is therefore placed in equal footing with other more established scones
I - therefore psych can be considered modern science
54
Nature nurture debate defintion
Concerned with extent which aspects of behav r product of inherited/acquired characteristics
55
Rene Descartes
Early nativists - believe human characteristics r innate + result of hereditary
56
Heredity definition
Generic transmission of mental + physical material from 1 generation to next
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Philosopher John Locke
Empiricists- believe mine is a blank slate, human characteristics learn + result of environ
58
Envir defintion in nature nurture debate
Influence on human behav that’s non genetic. Many range from pre natal influences in womb thro cultural/historical influences at societal level
59
Heritability coefficient
Used to asses heredity - numerical figure range from 0-1. Indicates extent which characteristic has genetic basis (1 - behav entirely genetically determined)
60
Richard Lerner
Identified different level of environ
61
2 ways different levels of envir can be identified?
Pre natal terms + post natal experience
62
Nature nurture debate - problem
Nature and nurture closely entertained, makes little sense to separate
63
High concordance rates in twin studies - problem
Unknown whether high concordance rates r result of shared genetic relatedness/shared bringing
64
Nature nurture debate changed - what r psychs pre focused on
More likely to ask about relative contribution of nature and nurture in behav
65
Interventionist approach def
Idea nature and nurture r linked to such extent it doesn’t make sense to separate the 2 = researchers instead study how they interact + influence each other
66
Diathesis model
Suggests psychopathology caused by biological/genetic vulnerability (Diathesis), only expressed when coupled with biological/environ trigger (stressor)
67
Who supports the Diathesis model and what did they find ?
Supported by Tienari et al (2004) - found in group of Finnish adoptees that most likely to develop schizophrenia had biological relatives with disorder (vulnerability) + had relationships with adoptive families defined as dysfunctional (trigger)
68
Epigentics
Refers to change in our genetic activity w/out changing our genetic code. Process that happens thro life + caused by interaction with envir
69
Epigenetic marks on DNA
Left by aspects of our lifestyle + events we encounter e.g smoking
70
Epigenetic marks in our body
Tell bodies which genes to ignore or use. may go on + influence genetic code of our children and our children's children.
71
Epigenetic in nature nurture debate
introduces 3rd element to nature-nurture debate; life experience of previous generations
72
Nature nurture evaluation - behav shaping
P - behav shaping has had practical application in therapy
E - Desirable behavs are selectively reinforced + undesirable behav r punished/ignored
E - However, if taken to
extreme, assumptions may lead one to advocate a model of society that controls + manipulates its citizens using these techniques.
E - ethical issue as some would argue that it removes indiv’s free will
73
Nature nurture evaluation - interactionist approach
P - evidence to support interactionist approach is more realist way of considering influences on behaviour
E - PKU (phenylketonuria) caused by inheritance of 2 recessive genes
E - If child is diagnosed early, they r placed on low protein diet for first 12 years = helps to revert this potentially lifelong disorder.
E - Therefore, disorder PKU (nature) isn’t expressed,because of altered environ showing how nature + nurture interact to impact on behav
74
Nature nurture evaluation - extreme determinist
P - extreme determinist stance our inherited genetic make-up determines our characteristics and behaviours has led to controversy
E - Governments attempted to link race, genetics + intelligence. This been applied to eugenics policy like sterelisation of feeble-minded individuals in America
I - means nature side of nature-nurture debate can have neg implications
E - nature aspect of human behav needs to be carefully considered to ensure that assump not used incorrectly in society
75
Holism
- argument/theory suggests we should only study indivisible system, rather than constituent parts
- view as a whole integrated experience
76
Reductionism
- belief human behav is best explained by breaking it down into smaller constituent parts
- choose simplest explanation
- based on scientific principle of parsimony
77
Biological reductionist
- attempts to explain social + psychological phenomena at lower biological level by reducing behav at physical level
- e.g ocd caused by lower levels of serotonin (biological approach)
78
Environmental reductionist
- stimulus response reductionism - attempts to explain phenomena based on stimulus response bonds/learned associations
- reduce simple building blocks of stimulus-response associations and complex behavs r serious of stimulus-response chains
- e.g phobias caused thro classical conditioning + maintained thro operant conditioning (behaviourist approach)
79
Levels of psych
Different ways of viewing same phenomena. Some ways are more reductionist than others
80
3 levels of explanation.
Lowest levels - physiological/biological factors
Middle level - cognitive/behavioural explanations
Highest level - social/cultural explanation (influence of social group on indiv)
81
Humanist psychs + environmental reductionism
Against - argue humans react to stimuli as organised whole, not set of stimulus + response links
Humanists take qualitative approach to investigate indiv + looking at interactions of people in society
82
Holism evaluation - rigorous tetsing
P - Holism can’t be rigorously tested
E - Humanism considers indivs as active active agents meaning behav can’t be studied as reference to internal/external influences
E - This means research can’t be gathered to support theories
I - holiday explanations therefore doesn’t fit requirements to be classed as a science
83
Reductionist explanation - psych as science
P - it’s possible to break behav into constituent parts and scientifically test them. E - e,g, capacity, coding + duration of short-term memory can be separately tested
E - means cause of behavs can be established more easily
I - therefore deterministic explanation of casual explanation can be provided to reductionist argument
84
Reductionist evaluation - understanding errors
P - some psychs argue biological reductionism lead to errors of understanding as it ignores complexity of human behav
E - Eg, to explain schizophrenia simply thro neurochemical imbalances suggests condition can be explained very simply.
E - This isn’t case. Schizophrenia is very complex disorder + could be argued it needs to be considered at higher level of explanation e.g at psychological level.
C - Holistic explanation attempts to overcome this criticism by blending diff levels of expl; holistic theory + approaches therefore attempt to provide complex + realistic understanding of human behav
