psychopathology Flashcards
what is psychopathology
the study of psychological disorder
what is statistical infrequency
A behaviour that does not occur very often and is uncommon in the population so statistically infrequent behaviours are seen as abnormal
strength of statistical infrequency as way of defining abnormality
practical application by defining abnormality SI can help identify mental disorders or intellectual disabilities e.g. an IQ less than 70 would be deemed abnormal as it is not where the rest of society is
limitations of statistical infrequency as a way of defining abnormality
abnormal characteristics can be good e.g. high intelligence
not everyone benefits from diagnosis may lead to them being an ‘outcast’
what is meant by deviation from social norms as a way of defining abnormality
deviation from social norms is transgressing unwritten socially defined and agreed expectations of normal functioning behaviour
what is a norm
a norm is a unwritten, socially defined and agreed expectation of normal functioning behaviour
What disorder is deviation from social norms useful in diagnosing?
anti social personality disorder
anti social personality disorder can be characterised by what 4 things
impulsive
aggressive
irresponsible
lack of empathy
according to the DSM-5 what is an important symptom of ASPD
they lack the internal, prosocial standards associated with our laws and customs that create normal & ethical behaviours (don’t meet our moral standards so abnormal)
what is the strength of deviation from social norms as a way of defining abnormality
practical application - helps diagnosis of ASPD
name two criticisms of deviation from social norms as a way of defining abnormality
cultural relativism - the norm regarding beliefs + behaviours may differ in varying cultures
human rights abuses - society may oppress/segregate a group with a certain abnormality in order for them to ‘fit’ into society
a norm varies based on time and place making it a ?
social construct
how is failure to function adequately defined
defined as someone who is unable to cope with the demand of day to day life
what was rosenhan & selingmans criteria by which failure to function adequately could be assessed
someone who lacks hygiene
unable to keep down a job
unable to maintain social relationships + nutrition
failure to follow interpersonal rules (eye contact)
name a strength of failure to function adequately as a way of defining abnormality
person centred - depends on the individual
name two limitations of failure to function adequately as a way of defining abnormality
subjective - may be disagreement on whether certain behaviours are abnormal
limiting freedom
what does deviation from ideal mental health believe as an approach to defining abnormality
believes that to know what makes us abnormal we must first have a real understanding of what makes us normal (psychologically healthy)
what was jahodas criteria used to assess ideal mental health
no symptoms/ distress rational/ accurate self & world perception self actualising / good self esteem ability to cope with stress independent successfully work, love & enjoy leisure
what would deviation from jahodas criteria suggest
less than ideal mental health and thus abnormality
name a strength of deviation from ideal mental health as a way of defining abnormality
comprehensive - covers a wide range of factors
name two limitations of deviation from ideal mental health as a way of defining abnormality
cultural relativism - biased towards cultures that aren’t western
unrealistic - not many people will meet every criteria
what is a phobia and give examples
an irrational fear of an object or a situation e.g. claustrophobia, arachnophobia, triphobia
what are the three types of phobias recognised by the DSM-5
specific phobias - objects or situations e.g arachnophobia
social anxiety/phobia - social/public situations
agoraphobia - being outside/ in public places
what are the cognitive characteristics of phobias
selective attention - only focusing on the object and nothing else
irrational beliefs - convincing yourself that this thing will cause you harm
cognitive distortions - object may appear bigger
what are the emotional characteristics of phobias
anxiety
characterised by high levels of fear
what are the behavioural characteristics of phobias
panic, scream , cry
avoidance - avoid certain areas or things
endurance - remain in the presence of it inescapable / unavoidable stimulus
what are the two parts of the two process model by mowrer
acquisition (classical conditioning) & maintenance (operant conditioning)
what is acquisition?
associating a no response with a fear response (ucs) so the no response becomes a conditioned stimulus producing a fear response (conditioned response)
what is maintenance
maintaining the phobia
as the stimulus causes anxiety/ fear we avoid it (negative reinforcement) this avoidance of unpleasant feelings reinforces/encourages the avoidance of the stimulus
an example of acquisition is
the little Albert study by Watson, Albert acquired a phobia of white fluffy things as he associated them with a fear response
what was the little Albert experiment
demonstrated that classical conditioning could be used to create phobia, Watson believed he could condition ‘little Albert’ to fear things that normally go without fear for children
which approach is the two process explanation model from
the behaviourist approach
name a strength of the two process model
practical application- two process model explains how phobias are acquired & maintained helping our understanding of how to combat such mental health problems e.g. developing endurance therapy
name two limitations of the two process model
limited explanation - model cannot explain all fears some may be adaptive, fails to take into account we are biologically prepared for certain phobias
limited explanation x2 - some phobias exist without traumatic experience
name two ways to treat phobias
systematic desensitisation & flooding
what is systematic desensitisation
replacing the fear response to the phobia with a relaxation response using classical conditioning
using classical conditioning to undo a phobia is known as
counter conditioning
systematic desensitisation is a ? therapy
behavioural
systematic desensitisation is based on the principle of ?
reciprocal inhibition
what is reciprocal inhibition
the idea that we can’t experience anxiety and relaxation simultaneously
what are the three stages of systematic desensitisation
anxiety hierarchy
relaxation
gradual exposure
what happens in the relaxation stage
explain what triggered fear/ phobia whilst relaxed
what happens in the third stage of S.D (gradual exposure)
exposure to each stage of the anxiety hierarchy while relaxed only moving up the hierarchy while completely relaxed during exposure
give an example of a relaxation technique that may be used in S.D
laying down
meditation
guided imagery
what are the strengths of S.D as a way of treating phobias
preferable option ( more preferable than flooding )
more suitable for those who cannot fully understand flooding
effective
what is a limitation of S.D as a way of treating phobias
more time consuming - can take multiple sessions as it is gradual
what is flooding
immediate + full exposure to the phobia
what is the explanation for flooding
exposing the patient to the unconditioned + conditioned stimulus so they realise its harmless and the CS no longer produces a fear response , not unethical but unpleasant so full informed consent needed
when a CS no longer produces a fear response this is known as
extinction
what are the strengths of flooding as a way of treating phobias
time effective
cost effective
what are the limitations of flooding as a way of treating phobias
traumatic - high trauma causes many to drop out
difficult to treat social phobias have more cognitive aspects than just behavioural
as flooding is highly traumatic it has a higher drop out rate also known as ? rate
attrition
what is depression
a mental disorder characterised by very low moods and energy levels
what are the 4 different types of depression recognised by the DSM - 5
major depressive disorder - severe but short term
persistent depressive disorder - long term
disruptive mood regulation disorder - childlike temper tantrums
premenstrual dysphoric disorder - mood disruption pre/during menstruation
what are the cognitive characteristics of depression
poor concentration/ decision making
pessimism
absolutist thinking - everything is either good or bad
what are the emotional characteristics of depression
extreme low mood
anger - short temper
low self esteem
what are the behavioural characteristics of depression
low activity levels
over or under eating / sleeping (insomnia)
aggression/ self harm
what are two ways of explaining depression
becks negative triad & Ellis’ ABC model
what is the first part to Beck’s explanation for depression
faulty information processing / cognitive bias - pessimism focusing on a negative + absolutist thinking , distorting information = cognitive bias
what is the second part to Beck’s explanation for depression
negative self schema - negative self concept often developed from negative childhood experiences
what is the third part to beck’s explanation for depression
Beck’s negative triad- made up of three parts
name the three components of the negative triad
negative views about the world
negative views about oneself
negative views about the future
what are the strengths of becks negative triad as a way of explaining depression
practical application - forms the base for the cognitive behaviour therapy, all cognitive aspects can be challenged with the use of CBT
supporting research - can predict early onset depression, early intervention
what are the limitations of becks negative triad as a way of explaining depression
ignores biological factors - cognitive explanations are seen to ignore the biological approach this is a flaw as the BA plays a part in understanding depression as well as serotonin (neurotransmitter)
limited explanation - can’t explain all aspects of depression
Ellis’ ABC model believes what
that irrational thoughts cause depression
what does the A stand for in Ellis’ ABC model
activating event - what happened?
what does the B stand for in Ellis’ ABC model
irrational beliefs - what story do you tell yourself?
what does the C stand for in Ellis’ ABC model
Consequence - B leads to unhealthy negative emotion
what is the strength. of ellis’ ABC model as a way of explaining depression
application - ellis’ model was used to develop a treatment for depression (REBT) which challenges irrational beliefs
what is the limitation of ellis’ ABC model as a way of explaining depression
endogenous depression (seasonal depression) - not all depression follows an event or situation meaning it cannot be explained by ellis’ model
name 4 ways of treating depression
CBT
behavioural activation
Beck’s cognitive therapy
Ellis’s REBT
what is cognitive behaviour therapy
a method for treating mental disorders based on both cognitive and behavioural techniques
what is the cognitive element of CBT
jointly identifying problems/ irrational thoughts, creating goals and plans of how to overcome them
what is the behavioural element of CBT
challenging the negative / irrational thoughts and replace with more effective behaviour
what are the 3 steps to Beck’s cognitive therapy
identify elements of the negative triad
challenge the thought
test the thoughts (client as scientist) find evidence of thoughts (or lack of)
what does Ellis’ REBT stand for
rational emotive behaviour therapy
what is Ellis’ REBT treatment
extends his ABC explanation to ABCDE
what does D & E stand for in Ellis’ ABCDE
dispute & exchange
what is the key technique of REBT
to identify and dispute irrational thoughts with vigorous arguments
what are the two types of vigorous arguments
empirical arguments (is there evidence) logical argument (does it make sense)
what is the goal of Ellis’ REBT
To exchange harmful irrational thoughts for more positive thoughts
? aims to gradually decrease avoidance/isolation associated with depression and increase ? to improve mood
behavioural activation, engagement
avoiding difficult situations and becoming isolated leads to what for those with depression
symptoms are maintained/ exacerbated i.e low activity levels
what are ways of increasing engagement
exercise, dinners, meeting with friends
what are two strengths of CBT as way of treating depression
effective - proven to be successful
time + cost effective - 6 - 12 sessions long and can be done online
what are two limitations of CBT as way of treating depression
appropriateness - may not be suitable for all cases of depression some patients with severe depression may not be able to engage
replaces rate - CBT has lower relapse rate as it focuses on challenging patients thoughts
what is OCD
a condition characterised by obsessions and / or compulsive behaviours
what are the 4 types of OCD recognised by the DSM-5
OCD - obsessions and or compulsions
trichotillomania - compulsive hair pulling
hoarding disorder - compulsive gathering of items and an inability to part with them
excoriation disorder - compulsive skin picking
what are the cognitive characteristics of OCD
obsessive thoughts - constantly on your mind
coping strategies - what you do to deal with your compulsion
insight - they are aware of the irrationality of their compulsion but can’t stop
what are the emotional characteristics of OCD
anxiety/distress - the root of their obsession causes anxiety
depression - OCD is permanent this causes depression
Guilt / disgust - ashamed of their depression
what are the behavioural characteristics of OCD
repetitive compulsion - must repeat the compulsion (compulsion reduces anxiety )
avoidance - they avoid places that trigger their anxiety
the cognitive element of OCD is characterised by ?
obsessive thoughts
the behavioural element of OCD is characterised by ?
compulsions
compulsions are often ? as the anxiety relief is ?
repetitive, temporary
what are the two types of explanations for OCD
genetic & neural
what percentage of OCD patients did lewis find had a parent with OCD
37%
what percentage of OCD patients did lewis find had a sibling with OCD
21%
genetic vulnerability is inherited through ?
candidate genes
OCD is ?
polygenic
what does polygenic mean
different combinations of different genes cause OCD
our genes are made up of ? which contain our ? this determines ? & ? characteristics
chromosomes , DNA, physical, psychological
OCD is ?
aetiologically heterogenous
what does this mean
different genes may cause the same disorder in different people
what is the purpose of serotonin
regulates mood and well being
? levels of ? may be linked to OCD
low, serotonin i.e OCD leads to low moods
what is the purpose of the lateral front lobes
linked to decision making
how is this related to OCD
hoarding may be linked to abnormal functioning here
what is the purpose of the parahippocampal gyrus
to process unpleasant emotions
how is this linked to OCD
obsessive unpleasant thoughts may be linked to abnormal functioning in the parahippocampal gyrus
what is a strength of the genetic explanation of OCD
supporting research increasing validity / reliability - supports evidence of genetic influence on OCD
what is a strength of the neural explanation of OCD
clinical evidence - research found SSRI’S (anti depressants) which increase serotonin reducing OCD symptoms
what are two limitations to the genetic explanation of OCD
ignores role of experience - the biological approach ignores environmental factors e.g. traumatic events, research found OCD more common in those with past trauma
methodological issues with twin studies - overlooks how twins are treated
what is a limitation to the neural explanation of OCD
cause & effect - for neural explanations there is no way of knowing whether the neural abnormalities cause OCD lead to it
? may be used to treat OCD as they work on our ? systems
anti depressants , serotonin
what does SSRI’s stand for
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
explain how SSRI’s work
brain sends a message
picked up by chemicals in the pre synaptic neuron
message transferred across synapse onto post synaptic neuron
chemicals reabsorbed by pre synaptic neuron
name a common SSRI and its typical daily dose
fluoxetine , 20mg
on average how many months of daily consumption does it take for symptom improvement to occur
3-4 months of daily consumption
what is serotonin
a neurotransmitter
do people with OCD have too much or too little of this neurotransmitter
too little
drugs are often used alongside ? to treat OCD
cognitive behaviour therapy
the drugs reduce ? symptoms, such as feeling ? or ? . this means patients can engage more effectively with ?
emotional, anxious, depressed , CBT
what are some alternative medications to SSRI’s
tricyclics and SNRI’s
give an example of a tricyclic
clomipramine
describe the effect of tricyclics in comparison to SSRI’s
have the same effect on the serotonin system as SSRI’s but the side effects can be more severe, only used when patients don’t respond to SSRI’s
what do SNRI’s do and give an example of one
SNRI’s block the reuptake of noradrenaline + serotonin
EFEXOR, XR
medications deal with the ? characteristic of OCD
emotional
what is the strength of SSRI’s as a way of treating OCD
effectiveness - soomro et al reviewed 17 students comparing SSRI’s to placebos in treating OCD, all 17 students showed significantly better results for SSRI’s than for placebo conditions
what are the two limitations of drug therapy as a way of treating OCD
side effects - indigestion, blurred vision and loss of sex drive (usually temporary), clomipramine = more common + more serious side effects
appropriateness - some cases of OCD may not have a biological cause, these drug therapies are not appropriate for cases following trauma
