Memory Flashcards
Define coding
The format information is stored in
define capacity
The amount of information a story can hold
define duration
The length of time information is held in a store for
What are the 3 types of memory stores
Sensory register
Short term
Long term
how is short term memory coded
Acoustically
how is long term memory coded
Semantically
how is long term memory coded
Semantically
How is sensory register coded
It is Modality specific (depends on senses)
what is the duration for sensory register
0.5 seconds (hangs on to what we pay attention to)
sensory register has a _____ capacity as it stores ____ sensory information
Large , all
what is the duration of short term memory
18-30 seconds
what is the duration of long term memory
Potentially unlimited
what is the capacity for short term memory
7+ / - 2 (5-9)
what is the capacity of long term memory
Potentially unlimited
who developed the multi store model
Atkinson and shiffrin (pioneers)
recreate the multi store model (draw it)
Must include all arrows
retrieval , maintenance loop , prolonged rehearsal , attention, stimuli from the environment, forgetting x 2 , response+ remembering
STM & LTM & SENSORY REGISTER
what year was the multi store model developed
1968
the two main stores in the sensory register are called….
The iconic memory (visual info)
The echoic memory (auditory info)
Information is transferred from there sensory register to the ?
STM
To prevent information fading in the STM what must take place
Maintenance rehearsal
Information in the STM is coded semantically meaning it turns…
Images or written words in to a verbal code
Give an example of a study that researches coding in both LTM & STM
Baddeleys word lists
describe Baddeleys word list study
4 groups with 4 word lists - acoustically similar & acoustically dissimilar , semantically similar (synonyms) & semantically dissimilar
Independent groups design
what were the results of Baddeleys word list study
Recall immediately- worst performance = acoustically similar
Recall again after 30mins - worst performance = semantically similar (LTM muddled up cannot process info all at once)
what study researches duration in LTM
Bahricks yearbooks
Bahricks yearbooks was a ______ experiment
Natural
describe Bahricks yearbook study
392 ppts
Used peoples yearbooks (17-70 yr olds)
Two conditions
C1 - free recall (name as many classmates without prompts
C2 - Photo recognition (pick out classmates from them photo section)
what were the results of Bahricks yearbook study
Stronger results for condition 2 LTM is semantic , and for younger people BUT both conditions had strong results and all ages had strong results
name a study that researched duration in the STM
Peterson and Peterson’s trigram’s
describe Peterson and Peterson’s trigram’s
24 students given trigram (3 random consonants put together e.g. YCK)
Then a number to count out loud backwards from in 3’s
Six conditions overall (each time new trigram + number)
Time spent counting range from 3-18 seconds
Time spent counting increased with each condition (counting prevents rehearsal)
what did Peterson and Peterson’s trigrams find
Most remembered trigram after 3 seconds , most did not remember the trigram after 18 seconds
name a study that researches capacity in the STM
Jacob’s digit span study
when was Jacob’s digit span study
1800’s
Describe Jacobs digit span study
Gave ppts 4 digits to remember and recall - if correct , asked to recall 5 digits one added each time they did it correctly
But with new digits to prevent mental rehearsal
Done until failure
what did Jacob’s digit span study find
Average was 7 digits
Give a strength of Baddeleys word lists study
Identified a clear difference between 2 stores which led to creation of models of memory e.g. multi store model
give a limitation of Baddeleys word lists study
Used artificial and meaningless material and so lacks internal validity
give a limitation of Peterson and Peterson’s trigrams study
Used artificial & meaningless material so lacks external validity (useless as LTM is coded based on semantics)
give a strength of Bahricks yearbook study
Used meaningful material and so has high external validity
give a limitation of Bahricks yearbook study
Natural experiment and so lacks control and thereby lacks internal validity
give a limitation of Jacob’s digit span study
Very old may have lacked controls and therefore low internal validity
give a strength of Jacob’s digit span study
Has been replicated with better controls and results were confirmed which increases reliability and validity
Cognitive psychologists have used ________ models to propose how memory operates
Theoretical
The multi store model is associated with the _______ approach as memory is a _____ , ______ ,_____ process
Cognitive
Hidden , internal, mental
_________ _________ is the means by which info is transferred from STM to LTM
Prolonged rehearsal
prolonged rehearsal means …….
Means information has been verbally rehearsed and remembered in a meaningful way
(Done over time)
give two strengths of the multi store model
The case of HM - removed hippocampus (apart of the lambic system) so HM was unable to form long term memories
Research support - Baddeley , Peterson + Peterson , Jacobs , Bahrick
Give two limitations of the multi store model
Elaborative rehearsal - different to prolonged rehearsal as it is connecting new information to old information ( your schema ) to move information to the LTM faster/quicker
There are different types of STM - KF motorcycle accident - brain damage - if read to couldn’t remember - if he read it could remember - couldn’t remember acoustic information but could visual info
Who developed the working memory model and why
Baddeley and Hitch - developed because problems with the MSM
Draw the WMM
Must include
Arrows
Central exec
Episodic buffer
Long term memory
Visuo spatial sketch pad - visual cache - inner scribe -
Phonological loop - phonological store - articulatory store -
In which part of the WMM is the inner scribe found
Visuo - spatial sketchpad
What is the role of the articulatory store
Is our inner voice
What is stored by the phonological store
Sounds
What is the role of the central executive
Receives and coordinates information to the slave systems
What is the role of the phonological loop
Deals with auditory information
What is the role of the episodic buffer
To integrate information from other stores/slave systems and maintain time sequencing
What part of the WMM was not initially included in the first model
The episodic buffer
What are two strengths of the WMM
KF case study support (phonological store was damaged but Visuo - spatial sketchpad intact)
Dual task research support - easier to listen to music (P) and see pictures (VSSP) than listen to music and read words (P + articulatory) - easier when different stores working simultaneously
What are two limitations of the WMM
Vague central exec - no research support
Vague LTM ( applies to MSM too )
Who proposed the three different types of LTM
Tulving
What are the three different types of LTM
Semantic memory
Episodic memory
Procedural memory
What is episodic memory (LTM)
‘Episodes our our lives’ - knowledge of unique personal events in our lives
Give an example of an episodic memory
Birthdays
What is semantic memory (LTM)
General/shared knowledge of the world
Give an example of semantic memory
Historical knowledge - how many wives Henry VIII had
What is procedural memory (LTM)
Our memory of how to do things
Give an example of a procedural memory
How to ride a bike
Episodic memories are ____ stamped whereas procedural & semantic memories are generally not ____ stamped
Time - have a specific date or specific time period attached to the memory
Which two types of LTM require conscious effort to access and recall
Episodic & semantic memories must be consciously recalled
Which type of LTM does not require conscious effort to recall but is instead instantly done
Procedural
What are two strengths of the LTM
Clive wearing case study support - procedural + semantic memory intact - episodic damaged unable to recall key unique personal events e.g. birth of children - H.M. The same P & S intact E damaged
Practical application - therapies for older people + treat memory loss e.g. dementia + Alzheimer’s
What are two limitations of the LTM
Case studies are unique therefore ungeneralisible - may be be one- offs
Others have claimed there are only two LTM stores
Declarative - memories that take effort to recall ( S + E )
Non declarative - do not take effort to recall ( P )
What are the two explanations of forgetting?
Retrieval failure
Interference
What is interference?
When memories block each other, we cannot access them and experience it as forgetting
Interference happens in the ____
STM
What are the two types of interference?
Proactive and retroactive
What is proactive interference?
When past memories block new ones
What is retroactive interference?
When recent memories block your old ones
What did Mcgeoch and McDonald’s study look into?
The effect of similarity on memory recall (interference)
What was the procedure of Mcgeoch and McDonalds study?
- had all of their ppts learn a list of 10 words with 100% accuracy (until they can recall all 10 words)
- split those ppts into 6 different groups (synonyms, acronyms etc) and each group got a new different list apart from G6 because they were the control group / learned their new lists to 100% accuracy and then asked to recall the OG word list
What were the findings of Mcgeoch and McDonalds study?
G6 (no new list CG) performed the best as there was nothing blocking their memory of the OG word list
G5 (3 digit numbers) performed second best as there was no relation to past word list so reduces possible retroactive influence
G1 (synonyms) performed the worst ad the words sounds the same to the OG word list which increases the likelihood of retroactive influence
What are two strengths of interference as an explanation of forgetting?
Real world evidence - Baddeley and Hitch studied rugby players for a season and asked them to recall the names of all the teams they had played that season they found that those who played the most games had the most interference and therefore the most recall
Control and validity - lab studies act as RS for this explanation meaning there is high internal validity as extraneous and confounding variables are controlled
What are two limitations of interference as an explanation of forgetting?
Artificial materials - the studies used to support this explanation lack external validity as being asked to recall word lists isn’t natural and therefore not applicable to real life
Alternative explanations for forgetting - retrieval failure is a separate explanation for forgetting that states forgetting happens when we dont have the right cues to access our LTM so they are blocked
What is retrieval failure?
RF occurs when we don’t have the right cues available in order to access a memory
What is a cue?
A cue is a trigger that allows us to access a memory
When is a cue encoded?
The same time as information is initially learnt
What is the encoding specificity principle?
If the cues at encoding and recall are different there will be an element of forgetting
Who proposed the encoding specificity principle?
Tulving
What are the two types of retrieval failure?
Context dependent forgetting
State dependent forgetting
Who looked into context dependent forgetting?
Godden & Baddeley
What was the procedure for Godden & Baddeley’s study?
- had divers learn a list of words and recall them in different conditions (there were 4 conditions in total)
Matching contexts (the same) - learned on land - recalled on land
- learned underwater - recalled underwater
Non matching context - learned on land - recalled underwater
- learned underwater - recalled on land
What were Godden and Baddeley’s findings?
Divers recall was worse in the non matching context - in accordance with Tulvings ESP and RS for retrieval failure
Who looked into state dependent forgetting?
Carter & Cassaday
What were Carter and Cassaday’s procedure?
- Had ppts learn and recall a list of words in different emotional/mental conditions
Matching contexts - learned on anti histamine - recalled on anti histamine
- learned off anti histamine - recalled off histamine
Non matching contexts - learned on AH - recalled off AH
- learned off AH - recall on AH
What does anti - histamine do?
AH makes you sleepy and drowsy
What were Carter and Cassaday’s findings?
They found recall was worse in the non matching contexts
What are two strengths of retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting
Real world application - we experience RF in everyday situations its common / it has also been used to create the cognitive interview which is the based on the principle of context dependent forgetting (recreating context to get cues)
Research support - suggests RF is the most common reason for forgetting in the LTM (Godden & Baddeley / Carter & Cassaday)
What are two limitations of retrieval failure as an explanation of forgetting?
Context significance - Baddeley states that the contexts have to be vastly different in order for forgetting to happen which means context dependent forgetting cant be applied to real life accurately - lack of validity
Alternative explanations - interference - incomplete explanation and therefore lacks validity
What is eyewitness testimony?
The evidence provided in court by a person who witnessed a crime
Who wanted to investigate the impact of leading questions on the accuracy of EWT?
Loftus and Palmer
What is a leading question?
One that suggests there is a specific answer (it leads the ppt towards a particular response)
What was the procedure of Loftus & Palmer’s study?
- 5 independent groups of participants (students) watched a car crash clip
- each group were asked the same leading question with a different verb
‘How fast were the cars going when they…’ - contacted
- bumped
- hit
- collided
- smashed
What were the findings of Loftus & Palmer’s study?
The lowest speed estimate was for contacted (31.8)
The highest speed estimate was for smashed (40.8)
Supports the idea that leading questions can alter EWT
What is post event discussion?
When co-witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other
Who looked into post event discussion?
Gabbert et al
What was the procedure for Gabbert et al’s study?
- paired ppts up
- had all ppts was the same crime from different points of view
- after watching the crime they discussed what they had seen
- then they were independently asked to recall what they had seen
What were Gabbert et al’s findings?
- 71% recalled information they hadn’t seen but had heard from their partner / in order to win social approval we are inclined to believe others over ourselves (memory conformity)
- control group (no discussion) 0% inaccurate recall
What is a strengths of Lotfus’ study?
Real world application - can be used to improve the accuracy of the justice system i.e. Loftus has provided expert testimony on many cases e.g. Epstein
What is a strength of both Loftus & Gabbert’s study?
High internal validity - controlled conditions boosts replicability making it more scientific
What is a limitation of both Gabbert’s and Loftus’ study?
Artificial materials - lack external validity / watching a crime and experiencing a crime are two different things / decreases validity
What is a limitation of Loftus’ study?
Population bias / CV’s - only students meaning the findings aren’t representative of the whole population as students are less likely to drive which is a confounding variable / this means their responses weren’t fully informed as they lack knowledge about cars / decreases validity
What is anxiety?
A state of emotional and physical arousal, including feelings of tension or worry
Anxiety is debated to have either a __________ or _________ effect on memory recall
Positive or negative effect
How can anxiety have a positive effect on memory recall?
Alertness leads to improved memory recall
How can anxiety have a negative effect on memory recall?
Distracted which leads to worse memory recall
Who looked into the negative effect of anxiety on EWT?
Johnson and Scott
What was the procedure for Johnson & Scott’s study?
- ppts in a waiting room heard an argument in the next room and focused in on it (tunnel theory)
- two conditions
- low anxiety condition - man walks out of the room with a pen and greasy hands
- high anxiety condition - they also hear breaking glass, then a man walks out of the room with a bloody knife
- ppts were later asked to identify the man out of 50 photos
What is tunnel theory?
When we narrow our focus on the source of anxiety and miss other information
What were the findings of Johnson & Scott’s study?
L.A.C - 49% identified correctly
H.A.C - 33% identified correctly
Supports the idea that anxiety has a negative effect on EWT & memory recall as when experiencing high anxiety we tend to focus in on the source of our anxiety which in this case was the knife
Who looked into the positive effect of anxiety on EWT?
Yuille & Cutshall
What was the procedure of Yuille & Cutshall’s study?
- conducted a natural experiment
- an authentic Canadian gun store shooting (owner shot thief dead)
- out of 21 witnesses 13 agreed to take part
- witnesses were interviewed 4-5 months later after the incident and their responses were compared to the initial police interviews
- they were also asked to report their stress at the time of the incident using a 7 point scale / if they have experienced emotional problems since the event
What were the findings of Yuille & Cutshall’s study?
He found that those who experienced the most stress had the most accurate recall (88%) compared to 75% for the least stressed (this is still high)
What is the Yerkes-Dodson law?
- explains the positive & negative effect of anxiety on EWT
- lower arousal = worst recall
- higher arousal = better recall
BUT after the optimum level of arousal, recall suffers a decline
Who pioneered the cognitive interview?
Fisher & Geiselman
What are the four features of the cognitive interview?
C - reinstate the Context (designed to minimise the impact of context dependent forgetting)
R - Reverse the order (to make sure they aren’t lying as they are less likely to use schema to recall meaning they have to think carefully)
E - report Everything (smaller details could act as cues that improve recall)
P - change Perspective (allows the witness to see the crime from a different angle so memory recall improves)
Fisher later added ______ elements to create the enhanced cognitive interview
Social
What were the three social elements added to the CI to create the enhanced cognitive interview?
- when to make & break eye contact
- minimising distractions
- reducing anxiety & open questions
What is a strength of the cognitive interview?
CI is effective - meta analysis by Kohnken et al (1999). Used findings from 50 studies and found CI consistently provided more correct information than regular police interviews
What are two limitations of the cognitive interview?
CI is time consuming - police may be reluctant as CI may take too long as time is needed to establish rapport with the witnesses and allow them to relax in order to have the CI perform at its peak effectiveness
Some elements are more valuable - Milne & Bull found each element was equally valuable but a combination of report everything and context reinstatement produced better results than any other combination (unnecessarily long)
