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Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

Define coding

A

The format information is stored in

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2
Q

define capacity

A

The amount of information a story can hold

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3
Q

define duration

A

The length of time information is held in a store for

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4
Q

What are the 3 types of memory stores

A

Sensory register
Short term
Long term

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5
Q

how is short term memory coded

A

Acoustically

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6
Q

how is long term memory coded

A

Semantically

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7
Q

how is long term memory coded

A

Semantically

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8
Q

How is sensory register coded

A

It is Modality specific (depends on senses)

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9
Q

what is the duration for sensory register

A

0.5 seconds (hangs on to what we pay attention to)

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10
Q

sensory register has a _____ capacity as it stores ____ sensory information

A

Large , all

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11
Q

what is the duration of short term memory

A

18-30 seconds

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12
Q

what is the duration of long term memory

A

Potentially unlimited

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13
Q

what is the capacity for short term memory

A

7+ / - 2 (5-9)

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14
Q

what is the capacity of long term memory

A

Potentially unlimited

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15
Q

who developed the multi store model

A

Atkinson and shiffrin (pioneers)

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16
Q

recreate the multi store model (draw it)

A

Must include all arrows
retrieval , maintenance loop , prolonged rehearsal , attention, stimuli from the environment, forgetting x 2 , response+ remembering
STM & LTM & SENSORY REGISTER

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17
Q

what year was the multi store model developed

A

1968

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18
Q

the two main stores in the sensory register are called….

A

The iconic memory (visual info)
The echoic memory (auditory info)

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19
Q

Information is transferred from there sensory register to the ?

A

STM

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20
Q

To prevent information fading in the STM what must take place

A

Maintenance rehearsal

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21
Q

Information in the STM is coded semantically meaning it turns…

A

Images or written words in to a verbal code

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22
Q

Give an example of a study that researches coding in both LTM & STM

A

Baddeleys word lists

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23
Q

describe Baddeleys word list study

A

4 groups with 4 word lists - acoustically similar & acoustically dissimilar , semantically similar (synonyms) & semantically dissimilar
Independent groups design

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24
Q

what were the results of Baddeleys word list study

A

Recall immediately- worst performance = acoustically similar
Recall again after 30mins - worst performance = semantically similar (LTM muddled up cannot process info all at once)

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25
Q

what study researches duration in LTM

A

Bahricks yearbooks

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26
Q

Bahricks yearbooks was a ______ experiment

A

Natural

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27
Q

describe Bahricks yearbook study

A

392 ppts
Used peoples yearbooks (17-70 yr olds)
Two conditions
C1 - free recall (name as many classmates without prompts
C2 - Photo recognition (pick out classmates from them photo section)

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28
Q

what were the results of Bahricks yearbook study

A

Stronger results for condition 2 LTM is semantic , and for younger people BUT both conditions had strong results and all ages had strong results

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29
Q

name a study that researched duration in the STM

A

Peterson and Peterson’s trigram’s

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30
Q

describe Peterson and Peterson’s trigram’s

A

24 students given trigram (3 random consonants put together e.g. YCK)
Then a number to count out loud backwards from in 3’s
Six conditions overall (each time new trigram + number)
Time spent counting range from 3-18 seconds
Time spent counting increased with each condition (counting prevents rehearsal)

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31
Q

what did Peterson and Peterson’s trigrams find

A

Most remembered trigram after 3 seconds , most did not remember the trigram after 18 seconds

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32
Q

name a study that researches capacity in the STM

A

Jacob’s digit span study

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33
Q

when was Jacob’s digit span study

A

1800’s

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34
Q

Describe Jacobs digit span study

A

Gave ppts 4 digits to remember and recall - if correct , asked to recall 5 digits one added each time they did it correctly
But with new digits to prevent mental rehearsal
Done until failure

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35
Q

what did Jacob’s digit span study find

A

Average was 7 digits

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36
Q

Give a strength of Baddeleys word lists study

A

Identified a clear difference between 2 stores which led to creation of models of memory e.g. multi store model

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37
Q

give a limitation of Baddeleys word lists study

A

Used artificial and meaningless material and so lacks internal validity

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38
Q

give a limitation of Peterson and Peterson’s trigrams study

A

Used artificial & meaningless material so lacks external validity (useless as LTM is coded based on semantics)

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39
Q

give a strength of Bahricks yearbook study

A

Used meaningful material and so has high external validity

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40
Q

give a limitation of Bahricks yearbook study

A

Natural experiment and so lacks control and thereby lacks internal validity

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41
Q

give a limitation of Jacob’s digit span study

A

Very old may have lacked controls and therefore low internal validity

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42
Q

give a strength of Jacob’s digit span study

A

Has been replicated with better controls and results were confirmed which increases reliability and validity

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43
Q

Cognitive psychologists have used ________ models to propose how memory operates

A

Theoretical

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44
Q

The multi store model is associated with the _______ approach as memory is a _____ , ______ ,_____ process

A

Cognitive
Hidden , internal, mental

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45
Q

_________ _________ is the means by which info is transferred from STM to LTM

A

Prolonged rehearsal

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46
Q

prolonged rehearsal means …….

A

Means information has been verbally rehearsed and remembered in a meaningful way
(Done over time)

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47
Q

give two strengths of the multi store model

A

The case of HM - removed hippocampus (apart of the lambic system) so HM was unable to form long term memories

Research support - Baddeley , Peterson + Peterson , Jacobs , Bahrick

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48
Q

Give two limitations of the multi store model

A

Elaborative rehearsal - different to prolonged rehearsal as it is connecting new information to old information ( your schema ) to move information to the LTM faster/quicker

There are different types of STM - KF motorcycle accident - brain damage - if read to couldn’t remember - if he read it could remember - couldn’t remember acoustic information but could visual info

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49
Q

Who developed the working memory model and why

A

Baddeley and Hitch - developed because problems with the MSM

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50
Q

Draw the WMM

A

Must include
Arrows
Central exec
Episodic buffer
Long term memory
Visuo spatial sketch pad - visual cache - inner scribe -
Phonological loop - phonological store - articulatory store -

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51
Q

In which part of the WMM is the inner scribe found

A

Visuo - spatial sketchpad

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52
Q

What is the role of the articulatory store

A

Is our inner voice

53
Q

What is stored by the phonological store

A

Sounds

54
Q

What is the role of the central executive

A

Receives and coordinates information to the slave systems

55
Q

What is the role of the phonological loop

A

Deals with auditory information

56
Q

What is the role of the episodic buffer

A

To integrate information from other stores/slave systems and maintain time sequencing

57
Q

What part of the WMM was not initially included in the first model

A

The episodic buffer

58
Q

What are two strengths of the WMM

A

KF case study support (phonological store was damaged but Visuo - spatial sketchpad intact)

Dual task research support - easier to listen to music (P) and see pictures (VSSP) than listen to music and read words (P + articulatory) - easier when different stores working simultaneously

59
Q

What are two limitations of the WMM

A

Vague central exec - no research support

Vague LTM ( applies to MSM too )

60
Q

Who proposed the three different types of LTM

A

Tulving

61
Q

What are the three different types of LTM

A

Semantic memory
Episodic memory
Procedural memory

62
Q

What is episodic memory (LTM)

A

‘Episodes our our lives’ - knowledge of unique personal events in our lives

63
Q

Give an example of an episodic memory

A

Birthdays

64
Q

What is semantic memory (LTM)

A

General/shared knowledge of the world

65
Q

Give an example of semantic memory

A

Historical knowledge - how many wives Henry VIII had

66
Q

What is procedural memory (LTM)

A

Our memory of how to do things

67
Q

Give an example of a procedural memory

A

How to ride a bike

68
Q

Episodic memories are ____ stamped whereas procedural & semantic memories are generally not ____ stamped

A

Time - have a specific date or specific time period attached to the memory

69
Q

Which two types of LTM require conscious effort to access and recall

A

Episodic & semantic memories must be consciously recalled

70
Q

Which type of LTM does not require conscious effort to recall but is instead instantly done

A

Procedural

71
Q

What are two strengths of the LTM

A

Clive wearing case study support - procedural + semantic memory intact - episodic damaged unable to recall key unique personal events e.g. birth of children - H.M. The same P & S intact E damaged

Practical application - therapies for older people + treat memory loss e.g. dementia + Alzheimer’s

72
Q

What are two limitations of the LTM

A

Case studies are unique therefore ungeneralisible - may be be one- offs

Others have claimed there are only two LTM stores
Declarative - memories that take effort to recall ( S + E )
Non declarative - do not take effort to recall ( P )

73
Q

What are the two explanations of forgetting?

A

Retrieval failure
Interference

74
Q

What is interference?

A

When memories block each other, we cannot access them and experience it as forgetting

75
Q

Interference happens in the ____

A

STM

76
Q

What are the two types of interference?

A

Proactive and retroactive

77
Q

What is proactive interference?

A

When past memories block new ones

78
Q

What is retroactive interference?

A

When recent memories block your old ones

79
Q

What did Mcgeoch and McDonald’s study look into?

A

The effect of similarity on memory recall (interference)

80
Q

What was the procedure of Mcgeoch and McDonalds study?

A
  • had all of their ppts learn a list of 10 words with 100% accuracy (until they can recall all 10 words)
  • split those ppts into 6 different groups (synonyms, acronyms etc) and each group got a new different list apart from G6 because they were the control group / learned their new lists to 100% accuracy and then asked to recall the OG word list
81
Q

What were the findings of Mcgeoch and McDonalds study?

A

G6 (no new list CG) performed the best as there was nothing blocking their memory of the OG word list
G5 (3 digit numbers) performed second best as there was no relation to past word list so reduces possible retroactive influence
G1 (synonyms) performed the worst ad the words sounds the same to the OG word list which increases the likelihood of retroactive influence

82
Q

What are two strengths of interference as an explanation of forgetting?

A

Real world evidence - Baddeley and Hitch studied rugby players for a season and asked them to recall the names of all the teams they had played that season they found that those who played the most games had the most interference and therefore the most recall

Control and validity - lab studies act as RS for this explanation meaning there is high internal validity as extraneous and confounding variables are controlled

83
Q

What are two limitations of interference as an explanation of forgetting?

A

Artificial materials - the studies used to support this explanation lack external validity as being asked to recall word lists isn’t natural and therefore not applicable to real life

Alternative explanations for forgetting - retrieval failure is a separate explanation for forgetting that states forgetting happens when we dont have the right cues to access our LTM so they are blocked

84
Q

What is retrieval failure?

A

RF occurs when we don’t have the right cues available in order to access a memory

85
Q

What is a cue?

A

A cue is a trigger that allows us to access a memory

86
Q

When is a cue encoded?

A

The same time as information is initially learnt

87
Q

What is the encoding specificity principle?

A

If the cues at encoding and recall are different there will be an element of forgetting

88
Q

Who proposed the encoding specificity principle?

A

Tulving

89
Q

What are the two types of retrieval failure?

A

Context dependent forgetting
State dependent forgetting

90
Q

Who looked into context dependent forgetting?

A

Godden & Baddeley

91
Q

What was the procedure for Godden & Baddeley’s study?

A
  • had divers learn a list of words and recall them in different conditions (there were 4 conditions in total)
    Matching contexts (the same)
  • learned on land - recalled on land
  • learned underwater - recalled underwater
    Non matching context
  • learned on land - recalled underwater
  • learned underwater - recalled on land
92
Q

What were Godden and Baddeley’s findings?

A

Divers recall was worse in the non matching context - in accordance with Tulvings ESP and RS for retrieval failure

93
Q

Who looked into state dependent forgetting?

A

Carter & Cassaday

94
Q

What were Carter and Cassaday’s procedure?

A
  • Had ppts learn and recall a list of words in different emotional/mental conditions
    Matching contexts
  • learned on anti histamine - recalled on anti histamine
  • learned off anti histamine - recalled off histamine
    Non matching contexts
  • learned on AH - recalled off AH
  • learned off AH - recall on AH
95
Q

What does anti - histamine do?

A

AH makes you sleepy and drowsy

96
Q

What were Carter and Cassaday’s findings?

A

They found recall was worse in the non matching contexts

97
Q

What are two strengths of retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting

A

Real world application - we experience RF in everyday situations its common / it has also been used to create the cognitive interview which is the based on the principle of context dependent forgetting (recreating context to get cues)

Research support - suggests RF is the most common reason for forgetting in the LTM (Godden & Baddeley / Carter & Cassaday)

98
Q

What are two limitations of retrieval failure as an explanation of forgetting?

A

Context significance - Baddeley states that the contexts have to be vastly different in order for forgetting to happen which means context dependent forgetting cant be applied to real life accurately - lack of validity

Alternative explanations - interference - incomplete explanation and therefore lacks validity

99
Q

What is eyewitness testimony?

A

The evidence provided in court by a person who witnessed a crime

100
Q

Who wanted to investigate the impact of leading questions on the accuracy of EWT?

A

Loftus and Palmer

101
Q

What is a leading question?

A

One that suggests there is a specific answer (it leads the ppt towards a particular response)

102
Q

What was the procedure of Loftus & Palmer’s study?

A
  • 5 independent groups of participants (students) watched a car crash clip
  • each group were asked the same leading question with a different verb
    ‘How fast were the cars going when they…’
  • contacted
  • bumped
  • hit
  • collided
  • smashed
103
Q

What were the findings of Loftus & Palmer’s study?

A

The lowest speed estimate was for contacted (31.8)
The highest speed estimate was for smashed (40.8)
Supports the idea that leading questions can alter EWT

104
Q

What is post event discussion?

A

When co-witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other

105
Q

Who looked into post event discussion?

A

Gabbert et al

106
Q

What was the procedure for Gabbert et al’s study?

A
  • paired ppts up
  • had all ppts was the same crime from different points of view
  • after watching the crime they discussed what they had seen
  • then they were independently asked to recall what they had seen
107
Q

What were Gabbert et al’s findings?

A
  • 71% recalled information they hadn’t seen but had heard from their partner / in order to win social approval we are inclined to believe others over ourselves (memory conformity)
  • control group (no discussion) 0% inaccurate recall
108
Q

What is a strengths of Lotfus’ study?

A

Real world application - can be used to improve the accuracy of the justice system i.e. Loftus has provided expert testimony on many cases e.g. Epstein

109
Q

What is a strength of both Loftus & Gabbert’s study?

A

High internal validity - controlled conditions boosts replicability making it more scientific

110
Q

What is a limitation of both Gabbert’s and Loftus’ study?

A

Artificial materials - lack external validity / watching a crime and experiencing a crime are two different things / decreases validity

111
Q

What is a limitation of Loftus’ study?

A

Population bias / CV’s - only students meaning the findings aren’t representative of the whole population as students are less likely to drive which is a confounding variable / this means their responses weren’t fully informed as they lack knowledge about cars / decreases validity

112
Q

What is anxiety?

A

A state of emotional and physical arousal, including feelings of tension or worry

113
Q

Anxiety is debated to have either a __________ or _________ effect on memory recall

A

Positive or negative effect

114
Q

How can anxiety have a positive effect on memory recall?

A

Alertness leads to improved memory recall

115
Q

How can anxiety have a negative effect on memory recall?

A

Distracted which leads to worse memory recall

116
Q

Who looked into the negative effect of anxiety on EWT?

A

Johnson and Scott

117
Q

What was the procedure for Johnson & Scott’s study?

A
  • ppts in a waiting room heard an argument in the next room and focused in on it (tunnel theory)
  • two conditions
  • low anxiety condition - man walks out of the room with a pen and greasy hands
  • high anxiety condition - they also hear breaking glass, then a man walks out of the room with a bloody knife
  • ppts were later asked to identify the man out of 50 photos
118
Q

What is tunnel theory?

A

When we narrow our focus on the source of anxiety and miss other information

119
Q

What were the findings of Johnson & Scott’s study?

A

L.A.C - 49% identified correctly
H.A.C - 33% identified correctly
Supports the idea that anxiety has a negative effect on EWT & memory recall as when experiencing high anxiety we tend to focus in on the source of our anxiety which in this case was the knife

120
Q

Who looked into the positive effect of anxiety on EWT?

A

Yuille & Cutshall

121
Q

What was the procedure of Yuille & Cutshall’s study?

A
  • conducted a natural experiment
  • an authentic Canadian gun store shooting (owner shot thief dead)
  • out of 21 witnesses 13 agreed to take part
  • witnesses were interviewed 4-5 months later after the incident and their responses were compared to the initial police interviews
  • they were also asked to report their stress at the time of the incident using a 7 point scale / if they have experienced emotional problems since the event
122
Q

What were the findings of Yuille & Cutshall’s study?

A

He found that those who experienced the most stress had the most accurate recall (88%) compared to 75% for the least stressed (this is still high)

123
Q

What is the Yerkes-Dodson law?

A
  • explains the positive & negative effect of anxiety on EWT
  • lower arousal = worst recall
  • higher arousal = better recall
    BUT after the optimum level of arousal, recall suffers a decline
124
Q

Who pioneered the cognitive interview?

A

Fisher & Geiselman

125
Q

What are the four features of the cognitive interview?

A

C - reinstate the Context (designed to minimise the impact of context dependent forgetting)
R - Reverse the order (to make sure they aren’t lying as they are less likely to use schema to recall meaning they have to think carefully)
E - report Everything (smaller details could act as cues that improve recall)
P - change Perspective (allows the witness to see the crime from a different angle so memory recall improves)

126
Q

Fisher later added ______ elements to create the enhanced cognitive interview

A

Social

127
Q

What were the three social elements added to the CI to create the enhanced cognitive interview?

A
  • when to make & break eye contact
  • minimising distractions
  • reducing anxiety & open questions
128
Q

What is a strength of the cognitive interview?

A

CI is effective - meta analysis by Kohnken et al (1999). Used findings from 50 studies and found CI consistently provided more correct information than regular police interviews

129
Q

What are two limitations of the cognitive interview?

A

CI is time consuming - police may be reluctant as CI may take too long as time is needed to establish rapport with the witnesses and allow them to relax in order to have the CI perform at its peak effectiveness

Some elements are more valuable - Milne & Bull found each element was equally valuable but a combination of report everything and context reinstatement produced better results than any other combination (unnecessarily long)

psychology yr12 (8 decks)

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