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psychology test two Flashcards

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1
Q

what is the definition of learning

A

an enduring change in the way an organism responds based on its experience

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2
Q

what are the 3 assumptions about learning

A
  1. experience shapes behavior
  2. learning is adaptive
  3. experiments can uncover the laws of learning
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3
Q

who was involved in classical conditioning and what was his experiment

A

ivan pavlov, his experiment involved dogs

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4
Q

what is a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus

A

a CS is a neutral stimulus

A CR is the response that has been learned

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5
Q

what is conditioning

A

a form of associative learning

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6
Q

what is unconditioned stimulus and unconditioned response

A

UCS is a reflexive stimulus

UCR is a reflexive response

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7
Q

what was the experiment that pavlov did

A

used a bell as a conditioned stimulus to make the dog salivate when it heard the meat

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8
Q

what is conditioned taste aversions

A

if a neutral flavor ( CS) is followed by an illness experience (UCR) well avoid the flavor in the future

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9
Q

when does a conditioned emotional response occur

A

it occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that evokes an emotional response

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10
Q

what is an example of an emotional conditioned response

A

“little albert” , he was given things that e weren’t scared of. when presented a white rat, a loud noise was rung behind him whenever he went to touch the rat , creating a phobia of rats, and fluffy things alike

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11
Q

what is stimulus generalization and discrimination

A

if a response is conditioned to one stimulus the organism may respond to a similar stimulus (generalization) but not to a dissimular stimulus (discrimination)

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12
Q

what is an example of stimulus generalization and discrimination

A

Galvanic skin response

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13
Q

what is aquisition

A

learning of a response based on the pairing between a CS and UCS

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14
Q

What is extinction

A

Weaking off a CR when the CS is presented repeatedly without the UCS (CS only trials)

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15
Q

what is spontaneous rcovery

A

the reemergence of a previously extinguished CR

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16
Q

what is forward, simultaneous and backwards conditioning

A
  1. forward conditioning is where the CS is presented before the UCS
  2. Simultaneous conditioning is where the CS and the UCS are presented at the same time
  3. backwards conditioning is where the UCS is presented before the CS
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17
Q

what is inter stimulus interval

A

the time between the CS and the UCS and is usually brief

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18
Q

what is prepared learning

A

the biologically wired readiness to learn some associations

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19
Q

what do organisms learn fin classical conditioning

A

the organism learns how to associate the CS with the UCS ( a stimulus- stimulus association)

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20
Q

what is edward throndikes law of effect

A

behavior is controlled by its consequences

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21
Q

why did throrndike call his type of learning instrumental learning

A

because the behavior is instrumental to achieving a satisfying state

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22
Q

what did B.F skinner call his type of learning

A

operant learning

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23
Q

what is operant learning

A

learning that results when an organism associates a behavior with a particular environmental event

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24
Q

what is the operant

A

behavior that is emitted by an organism

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25
Q

what is positive reinforcement

A

presentation of a reward after a behavior makes the behavior more likely to be repeated

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26
Q

what is negative reinforcement

A

removal d an aversive event after a behavior making the behavior more likely to recur

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27
Q

what is extinction in terms of reinforcement

A

removal of the reinforcer

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28
Q

what is continuous reinforcement

A

reinforcer is obtained for every response (rare )

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29
Q

what is positive punishment

A

presentation of an aversive event after a behavior makes the behavior less likely to recur

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30
Q

what is negative punishment

A

removal of a reward after a behavior makes the behavior less likely to recur

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31
Q

what are the five problems with punishment

A
  1. learner may have difficulty distinguishing which operant is being punished
  2. learner may come to fear the person administering the punishment ( classical ) rather that the action (operant)
  3. punishment may not eliminate existing rewards for behavior
  4. people can use punishment when angry which can lead to further abuse
  5. aggression that is used to punish behavior often lead to further aggression
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32
Q

what is the cognitive social theory

A

it incorporates the concepts of conditioning with a focus on cognition and social theory

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33
Q

what is latent learning

A

learning that has occurred but is not currently manifest in behavior

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34
Q

what is modeling

A

a form of social observation learning in which a person learns to reproduce behavior by a model

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35
Q

what did bandura learn about modeling in children

A

children who watched adults attack the bobo doll aggressively were twice as aggressive on the bobo doll when allowed to play vs children who werent exposed or where shown acts of nonaggression

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36
Q

what is the self fulfilling prophecy

A

our expectations about the likelyhood of a particular outcome leads us to encourage behavior that actually produces these outcome

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37
Q

what is locus of control

A

generalized expectations people hold about whether or not their on behavior can bring out the outcomes they seek

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38
Q

what is internal locus

A

my actions determine my fate

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39
Q

what is external locus

A

life is governed by forces outside of my control

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40
Q

what is memory

A

the process by which we encode, store and retrieve

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41
Q

what are the three types of mental representations

A

sensory, verbal and motoric

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42
Q

what is sensory

A

store information in a sensory mode such as visual and auditory

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43
Q

what is verbal

A

information stored in words

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44
Q

what is motoric

A

memories of motor actions (muscle movements )

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45
Q

what are sensory registers

A

holds information about a perceived sensory stimulus for about a half a second to two seconds after the stimulus has disappeared

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46
Q

what is iconic storage

A

momentary memory for visual information

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47
Q

what is echoic storage

A

momentary memory for auditory information

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48
Q

what is short term memory

A

holds a small amount of information in our consciousness for a limited duration of 20 -30 sec

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49
Q

how much information can you store in your short term memory at a time

A

the average is 7 plus of minus 2 so about 5-9 items

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50
Q

what did hermann ebbinghaus discover about STM

A

that the average item capacity was 7 across cultures

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51
Q

what is maintenance

A

information is repeated over and over again in ones mind

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52
Q

what is elaborative

A

information is related to other knowledge

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53
Q

what is working memory

A

includes a STM store and a set of control process which can be used to achieve goals, solve problems, and respond to environmental demands

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54
Q

what are the 3 storage systems of working memory and what do the do

A
  1. central executive: controls executive processes such as balancing two task at one
  2. Visuospatial sketchpad : a temporary image (20 -30 secs) that provides information about the location and nature of objects
  3. phonological store : storage of verbal items
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55
Q

holding an image in working memory activates what

A

the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

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56
Q

what is long term memory

A

memory for facts, thoughts, skills, feelings and experiences that may last a lifetime, theoretically endless

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57
Q

what is retrieval

A

bringing stored information back into the STM / consciousness

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58
Q

what is chunking

A

a memory technique to aid working memory that uses knowledge stored in the LTM to group info into larger units than single words or digits

59
Q

what are the types of knowledge stored

A
  1. declarative

2. procedural

60
Q

what are the two types of declarative and what do they do

A
  1. general/ semantic : general world knowledge or facts

2. episodic : memories of specific events , often autobiographical

61
Q

what is procedural knowledge

A

how to knowledge of procedures or skills

62
Q

what are the 2 ways knowledge is expressed

A

explicit and implicit

63
Q

what is implicit

A

expressed on behavior, doesnt require consciousness recollection such as skills an conditioned learning

64
Q

what is explicit

A

requires the conscious retrieval of information

65
Q

what are the two types of explicit and what do they do

A

recall: spontaneous conscious recollection of information from LTM
recognition: recollection that has been previously encountered or learned

66
Q

what is everyday memory

A

memory as it occurs in daily life, the information is usually meaningful and emotionally significant

67
Q

what is everyday memory linked to

A

the hippocampus

68
Q

what is encoding

A

information is cast into a representations; code so that it can be accessed later from the LTM

69
Q

what is shallow processing

A

the physical aspects of the stimulus

70
Q

what is deep processing

A

the meaning of the stimulus

71
Q

what is the encoding specificity principle

A

the ease of retrieval from the LTM depends on the match between the way information is encoded and the way it is later retrieved

72
Q

what is context and retrieval

A

the contexts in which people encode and retrieve info can also affect the ease of retrieval

73
Q

what is state dependent memory

A

being in a similar mood at encoding and retrieval can facilitate memory

74
Q

what is the spacing effect

A

spacing studies over longer time intervals almost doubles long term retention of information

75
Q

what are mnemonic devices

A

systematic strategies for remembering information

76
Q

what are the two mnemonic devices and how do they work

A

SQ3R: survey, question, read recite, review

Method of Loci: uses visual imagery as a memory aid

77
Q

what is the networks of association

A

LTM is organized into networks that are related to meaning

78
Q

what is a node

A

a set of neurons distributed throughout the brain the fires together to produce a mental representation

79
Q

what is the spreading activation theory

A

activating one node in a network can trigger activation in closely related nodes

80
Q

what are schemas

A

integrated patterns of knowledge stored in the LTM that organizes information and guides the acquisition of new info

81
Q

how does emotions impair memory

A

prolonged stress can corrode neutral connections and shrink the hippocampus, it can also block retrieval

82
Q

what dies emotions enhance memory

A

flashbulb memories : vivid memories of emotionally significant events

83
Q

what does the amygdala do

A

avoidance, learning, fear conditioning and emotional memory

84
Q

what does the hippocampus do

A

explicit declarative memory and everyday memory

85
Q

what does the occipital and parietal lobe do

A

sensory and perceptual

86
Q

what does the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex do

A

working memory

87
Q

what does the basal ganglia

A

implicit procedural memory

88
Q

what does the medial temporal lobe and ventral through the uncinate fasciculus do

A

episodic memory

89
Q

what did ebbinghaus document about forgetting

A

the initial rate of forgetting is rapid and then there is a gradual loss

90
Q

what are the three theories of forgetting and what do they mean

A
  1. decay : memory is a neutral trace that fades with disuse
  2. interface : conflict between new and old memories
  3. motivated forgetting : forgetting for a reason
91
Q

what is proactive

A

old memories interfere with recall of new information

92
Q

what is retroactive

A

new memories interfere with the recall of old information

93
Q

what is attention

A

the process by which we focus our conscious awareness

94
Q

what is selective attention

A

the ability to focus on one element amidst a few sensations

95
Q

what is the cocktail party phenomenon

A

during a cocktail party you can focus on your conversation while being surrounded by noise

96
Q

what is selective inattention

A

process by which important but emotionally upsetting information is ignored

97
Q

what are the three functions of attention

A
  1. maintaining alertness, orienting toward the environment , and controlling the contents of consciousness
98
Q

what is maintaining alertness and what brain areas does it use

A

used to measure continuous performance , uses the reticular formation and frontal lobes

99
Q

what is orienting to the environment and what brain area does it use

A

focusing on sensory organs towards a stimulus, uses brain areas (anterior) frontal lobes, anterior cingulate and basal ganglia and the posterior) pulvinar (thalamus) superior colliculus and parietal lobes

100
Q

what is controlling the contents of consciousness and what area of the brain does it use

A

relies on working memory, uses the basal ganglia and frontal lobe

101
Q

what is the psychodynamic view of consciousness

A

there are three mental systems form consciousness

  1. conscious: mental events of which you are aware (small)
  2. Preconcious: mental events that can be brought into conscious awareness easily
    unconscious: mental events that are inaccessible to awareness because they cause anxiety
102
Q

what are the three parts of the cognitive view of consciousness

A
  1. consciousness of self
  2. preconscious cognitive processes
  3. unconscious cognitive process
103
Q

what is consciousness of self

A

accounts for hyphotic suggestions and disdociative disorders

104
Q

what is preconscious cognitive processes

A

schemas activated below the consciousness threshold that influence conscious thought/ behavior

105
Q

what is unconscious processes

A

implicit memories for procedures skills associations that operate without our awareness

106
Q

what is the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex involved in

A

in working memory and activated when preparing to expert conscious control

107
Q

what does the anterior cingulate cortex involved in

A

in consciously regulating conflicting cues and inhibiting responses that are incorrect

108
Q

what are the 3 conditions of the stroop test

A
  1. word reading
  2. color naming
  3. incongruent color naming
109
Q

what are the altered states of consciousness

A
  1. drugs
  2. mediation
  3. hypnosis
110
Q

what is circadian rhythm

A

cyclical biological process that evolved around daily cycles of dark and light

111
Q

what is circadian rhythm controlled by

A

the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus ( Responds to light) and the pineal gland (melatonin -> darkness)

112
Q

How do species vary in sleep

A

Humans are right in the middle of the sleep chart needing on average of 8 hours of sleep compared to opossum who need at least 19 and horses who need at least 2

113
Q

How long do infants sleep and how much of it is REM sleep

A

Infants sleep about 16 hours a day and 50% of it is REM sleep

114
Q

How long to adults sleep and how much of it is REM sleep

A

Adults sleep on average of 8 hours of sleep and 25% of it REM sleep

115
Q

What is the morality rate of humans

A

Humans who get an average of 7-8 hours of sleep live the longest compared to people who get over 10 hours of sleep or people who get less than 4 hours of sleep

116
Q

What are the three functions of sleep

A
  1. Energy conservation
  2. Memory consolidation
  3. Restore bodily functions
117
Q

What happens when you have sleep deprivation

A

Sleep deprivation can reduce the functioning of the immune system and can cause hallucinations

118
Q

What Is EEG

A

Uses electrodes to measure voltage differences emerging from the brain between sites on the scalp and the neutral reference

119
Q

What is frequency

A

Number of cycles per second measured in hertz

120
Q

What is amplitude

A

Height and depth of the wave

121
Q

What is synchrony

A

High amplitude and low frequency

122
Q

What Is desynchrony

A

Low amplitude and high frequency

123
Q

What is the hz and associated features of delta waves

A

<4 Hz, synchronous waves; stages 3 and 4 sleep

124
Q

What is the Hz and associated features of theta waves

A

4-7 Hz; stage one sleep

125
Q

What is the Hz and associated features of alpha waves

A

8-12 hz relaxed states with eyes closed; meditation

126
Q

What is the hz and associated features of beta waves

A

> 13 Hz; desynchronous waves; awake and alert, active information processing; REM sleep

127
Q

What happens in stage one of sleep

A

Slowing of the waves , theta waves, only last a few min

128
Q

What happens in stage 2 of sleep

A

This is the bulk of sleep (45%), sleep spindles and k complex form

129
Q

What happens in stage 3 of sleep

A

Delta waves appear

130
Q

What happens in stage 4 of sleep

A

more than 50% delta waves; relaxed muscles, decreased respiration, decrease in body temp

131
Q

How do you get to REM sleep

A

Once the body reaches stage 4, it will go back to stage 3 then 2 then rem sleep

132
Q

How often do the stages cycle

A

Every 90 min

133
Q

As the night progresses we spend more time in

A

REM sleep

134
Q

What is narcolepsy

A

Recurrent periods if an irrepressible need to sleep lapsing into sleep pr napping occurring within the same day occurring at least 3 times per week for 3 months

135
Q

What is the prevalence of narcolepsy

A

.02% to .04% of the general population

136
Q

What is narcolepsy associated with

A

Episodes of cataplexy , impaired timing of events associated with REM sleep

137
Q

What are the treatments for narcolepsy

A
  1. Stimulants and antidepressants
138
Q

What is insomnia disorder

A

A predominant complaint of dissatisfaction with sleep whether it be quantity of quality

139
Q

What are the symptoms of narcolepsy

A
  1. Difficultly initiating sleep
  2. difficultly maintaining sleep
  3. Early morning awaking with inability
140
Q

What is the psychodynamic view of dreaming

A

Dreams represent a window of unconscious, dreams have a meaning that must be deciphered by someone skilled in dream interpretation

141
Q

What is the biological view of dreaming

A

Dreams are a biological phenomenon with no meaning, dreams are interpretations of random neural signal initiated in the pons and midbrain during REM sleep

142
Q

Why are dreams important for memory consolidation

A
  1. During NREM sleep, the hippocampus activates the cortex to consolidate memories
  2. During REM sleep, the cortex erases old memories from the hippocampus that are fully consolidated
143
Q

What is the cognitive view of dreaming

A

Dreams are a from of thought, during dreams electrical impulses activate schemas in the cerebral cortex, dreams express concerns

144
Q

What are the effects of hypnosis

A

Analgesia ( lack of pain)
amnesia ( for what happened during hypnosis)
Hyperamnesia ( recall of forgotten memories)

Biology (5 decks)

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