psychology test two Flashcards
1
Q
what is the definition of learning
A
an enduring change in the way an organism responds based on its experience
2
Q
what are the 3 assumptions about learning
A
- experience shapes behavior
- learning is adaptive
- experiments can uncover the laws of learning
3
Q
who was involved in classical conditioning and what was his experiment
A
ivan pavlov, his experiment involved dogs
4
Q
what is a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus
A
a CS is a neutral stimulus
A CR is the response that has been learned
5
Q
what is conditioning
A
a form of associative learning
6
Q
what is unconditioned stimulus and unconditioned response
A
UCS is a reflexive stimulus
UCR is a reflexive response
7
Q
what was the experiment that pavlov did
A
used a bell as a conditioned stimulus to make the dog salivate when it heard the meat
8
Q
what is conditioned taste aversions
A
if a neutral flavor ( CS) is followed by an illness experience (UCR) well avoid the flavor in the future
9
Q
when does a conditioned emotional response occur
A
it occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that evokes an emotional response
10
Q
what is an example of an emotional conditioned response
A
“little albert” , he was given things that e weren’t scared of. when presented a white rat, a loud noise was rung behind him whenever he went to touch the rat , creating a phobia of rats, and fluffy things alike
11
Q
what is stimulus generalization and discrimination
A
if a response is conditioned to one stimulus the organism may respond to a similar stimulus (generalization) but not to a dissimular stimulus (discrimination)
12
Q
what is an example of stimulus generalization and discrimination
A
Galvanic skin response
13
Q
what is aquisition
A
learning of a response based on the pairing between a CS and UCS
14
Q
What is extinction
A
Weaking off a CR when the CS is presented repeatedly without the UCS (CS only trials)
15
Q
what is spontaneous rcovery
A
the reemergence of a previously extinguished CR
16
Q
what is forward, simultaneous and backwards conditioning
A
- forward conditioning is where the CS is presented before the UCS
- Simultaneous conditioning is where the CS and the UCS are presented at the same time
- backwards conditioning is where the UCS is presented before the CS
17
Q
what is inter stimulus interval
A
the time between the CS and the UCS and is usually brief
18
Q
what is prepared learning
A
the biologically wired readiness to learn some associations
19
Q
what do organisms learn fin classical conditioning
A
the organism learns how to associate the CS with the UCS ( a stimulus- stimulus association)
20
Q
what is edward throndikes law of effect
A
behavior is controlled by its consequences
21
Q
why did throrndike call his type of learning instrumental learning
A
because the behavior is instrumental to achieving a satisfying state
22
Q
what did B.F skinner call his type of learning
A
operant learning
23
Q
what is operant learning
A
learning that results when an organism associates a behavior with a particular environmental event
24
Q
what is the operant
A
behavior that is emitted by an organism
25
what is positive reinforcement
presentation of a reward after a behavior makes the behavior more likely to be repeated
26
what is negative reinforcement
removal d an aversive event after a behavior making the behavior more likely to recur
27
what is extinction in terms of reinforcement
removal of the reinforcer
28
what is continuous reinforcement
reinforcer is obtained for every response (rare )
29
what is positive punishment
presentation of an aversive event after a behavior makes the behavior less likely to recur
30
what is negative punishment
removal of a reward after a behavior makes the behavior less likely to recur
31
what are the five problems with punishment
1. learner may have difficulty distinguishing which operant is being punished
2. learner may come to fear the person administering the punishment ( classical ) rather that the action (operant)
3. punishment may not eliminate existing rewards for behavior
4. people can use punishment when angry which can lead to further abuse
5. aggression that is used to punish behavior often lead to further aggression
32
what is the cognitive social theory
it incorporates the concepts of conditioning with a focus on cognition and social theory
33
what is latent learning
learning that has occurred but is not currently manifest in behavior
34
what is modeling
a form of social observation learning in which a person learns to reproduce behavior by a model
35
what did bandura learn about modeling in children
children who watched adults attack the bobo doll aggressively were twice as aggressive on the bobo doll when allowed to play vs children who werent exposed or where shown acts of nonaggression
36
what is the self fulfilling prophecy
our expectations about the likelyhood of a particular outcome leads us to encourage behavior that actually produces these outcome
37
what is locus of control
generalized expectations people hold about whether or not their on behavior can bring out the outcomes they seek
38
what is internal locus
my actions determine my fate
39
what is external locus
life is governed by forces outside of my control
40
what is memory
the process by which we encode, store and retrieve
41
what are the three types of mental representations
sensory, verbal and motoric
42
what is sensory
store information in a sensory mode such as visual and auditory
43
what is verbal
information stored in words
44
what is motoric
memories of motor actions (muscle movements )
45
what are sensory registers
holds information about a perceived sensory stimulus for about a half a second to two seconds after the stimulus has disappeared
46
what is iconic storage
momentary memory for visual information
47
what is echoic storage
momentary memory for auditory information
48
what is short term memory
holds a small amount of information in our consciousness for a limited duration of 20 -30 sec
49
how much information can you store in your short term memory at a time
the average is 7 plus of minus 2 so about 5-9 items
50
what did hermann ebbinghaus discover about STM
that the average item capacity was 7 across cultures
51
what is maintenance
information is repeated over and over again in ones mind
52
what is elaborative
information is related to other knowledge
53
what is working memory
includes a STM store and a set of control process which can be used to achieve goals, solve problems, and respond to environmental demands
54
what are the 3 storage systems of working memory and what do the do
1. central executive: controls executive processes such as balancing two task at one
2. Visuospatial sketchpad : a temporary image (20 -30 secs) that provides information about the location and nature of objects
3. phonological store : storage of verbal items
55
holding an image in working memory activates what
the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
56
what is long term memory
memory for facts, thoughts, skills, feelings and experiences that may last a lifetime, theoretically endless
57
what is retrieval
bringing stored information back into the STM / consciousness
58
what is chunking
a memory technique to aid working memory that uses knowledge stored in the LTM to group info into larger units than single words or digits
59
what are the types of knowledge stored
1. declarative
| 2. procedural
60
what are the two types of declarative and what do they do
1. general/ semantic : general world knowledge or facts
| 2. episodic : memories of specific events , often autobiographical
61
what is procedural knowledge
how to knowledge of procedures or skills
62
what are the 2 ways knowledge is expressed
explicit and implicit
63
what is implicit
expressed on behavior, doesnt require consciousness recollection such as skills an conditioned learning
64
what is explicit
requires the conscious retrieval of information
65
what are the two types of explicit and what do they do
recall: spontaneous conscious recollection of information from LTM
recognition: recollection that has been previously encountered or learned
66
what is everyday memory
memory as it occurs in daily life, the information is usually meaningful and emotionally significant
67
what is everyday memory linked to
the hippocampus
68
what is encoding
information is cast into a representations; code so that it can be accessed later from the LTM
69
what is shallow processing
the physical aspects of the stimulus
70
what is deep processing
the meaning of the stimulus
71
what is the encoding specificity principle
the ease of retrieval from the LTM depends on the match between the way information is encoded and the way it is later retrieved
72
what is context and retrieval
the contexts in which people encode and retrieve info can also affect the ease of retrieval
73
what is state dependent memory
being in a similar mood at encoding and retrieval can facilitate memory
74
what is the spacing effect
spacing studies over longer time intervals almost doubles long term retention of information
75
what are mnemonic devices
systematic strategies for remembering information
76
what are the two mnemonic devices and how do they work
SQ3R: survey, question, read recite, review
| Method of Loci: uses visual imagery as a memory aid
77
what is the networks of association
LTM is organized into networks that are related to meaning
78
what is a node
a set of neurons distributed throughout the brain the fires together to produce a mental representation
79
what is the spreading activation theory
activating one node in a network can trigger activation in closely related nodes
80
what are schemas
integrated patterns of knowledge stored in the LTM that organizes information and guides the acquisition of new info
81
how does emotions impair memory
prolonged stress can corrode neutral connections and shrink the hippocampus, it can also block retrieval
82
what dies emotions enhance memory
flashbulb memories : vivid memories of emotionally significant events
83
what does the amygdala do
avoidance, learning, fear conditioning and emotional memory
84
what does the hippocampus do
explicit declarative memory and everyday memory
85
what does the occipital and parietal lobe do
sensory and perceptual
86
what does the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex do
working memory
87
what does the basal ganglia
implicit procedural memory
88
what does the medial temporal lobe and ventral through the uncinate fasciculus do
episodic memory
89
what did ebbinghaus document about forgetting
the initial rate of forgetting is rapid and then there is a gradual loss
90
what are the three theories of forgetting and what do they mean
1. decay : memory is a neutral trace that fades with disuse
2. interface : conflict between new and old memories
3. motivated forgetting : forgetting for a reason
91
what is proactive
old memories interfere with recall of new information
92
what is retroactive
new memories interfere with the recall of old information
93
what is attention
the process by which we focus our conscious awareness
94
what is selective attention
the ability to focus on one element amidst a few sensations
95
what is the cocktail party phenomenon
during a cocktail party you can focus on your conversation while being surrounded by noise
96
what is selective inattention
process by which important but emotionally upsetting information is ignored
97
what are the three functions of attention
1. maintaining alertness, orienting toward the environment , and controlling the contents of consciousness
98
what is maintaining alertness and what brain areas does it use
used to measure continuous performance , uses the reticular formation and frontal lobes
99
what is orienting to the environment and what brain area does it use
focusing on sensory organs towards a stimulus, uses brain areas (anterior) frontal lobes, anterior cingulate and basal ganglia and the posterior) pulvinar (thalamus) superior colliculus and parietal lobes
100
what is controlling the contents of consciousness and what area of the brain does it use
relies on working memory, uses the basal ganglia and frontal lobe
101
what is the psychodynamic view of consciousness
there are three mental systems form consciousness
1. conscious: mental events of which you are aware (small)
2. Preconcious: mental events that can be brought into conscious awareness easily
unconscious: mental events that are inaccessible to awareness because they cause anxiety
102
what are the three parts of the cognitive view of consciousness
1. consciousness of self
2. preconscious cognitive processes
3. unconscious cognitive process
103
what is consciousness of self
accounts for hyphotic suggestions and disdociative disorders
104
what is preconscious cognitive processes
schemas activated below the consciousness threshold that influence conscious thought/ behavior
105
what is unconscious processes
implicit memories for procedures skills associations that operate without our awareness
106
what is the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex involved in
in working memory and activated when preparing to expert conscious control
107
what does the anterior cingulate cortex involved in
in consciously regulating conflicting cues and inhibiting responses that are incorrect
108
what are the 3 conditions of the stroop test
1. word reading
2. color naming
3. incongruent color naming
109
what are the altered states of consciousness
1. drugs
2. mediation
3. hypnosis
110
what is circadian rhythm
cyclical biological process that evolved around daily cycles of dark and light
111
what is circadian rhythm controlled by
the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus ( Responds to light) and the pineal gland (melatonin -> darkness)
112
How do species vary in sleep
Humans are right in the middle of the sleep chart needing on average of 8 hours of sleep compared to opossum who need at least 19 and horses who need at least 2
113
How long do infants sleep and how much of it is REM sleep
Infants sleep about 16 hours a day and 50% of it is REM sleep
114
How long to adults sleep and how much of it is REM sleep
Adults sleep on average of 8 hours of sleep and 25% of it REM sleep
115
What is the morality rate of humans
Humans who get an average of 7-8 hours of sleep live the longest compared to people who get over 10 hours of sleep or people who get less than 4 hours of sleep
116
What are the three functions of sleep
1. Energy conservation
2. Memory consolidation
3. Restore bodily functions
117
What happens when you have sleep deprivation
Sleep deprivation can reduce the functioning of the immune system and can cause hallucinations
118
What Is EEG
Uses electrodes to measure voltage differences emerging from the brain between sites on the scalp and the neutral reference
119
What is frequency
Number of cycles per second measured in hertz
120
What is amplitude
Height and depth of the wave
121
What is synchrony
High amplitude and low frequency
122
What Is desynchrony
Low amplitude and high frequency
123
What is the hz and associated features of delta waves
<4 Hz, synchronous waves; stages 3 and 4 sleep
124
What is the Hz and associated features of theta waves
4-7 Hz; stage one sleep
125
What is the Hz and associated features of alpha waves
8-12 hz relaxed states with eyes closed; meditation
126
What is the hz and associated features of beta waves
>13 Hz; desynchronous waves; awake and alert, active information processing; REM sleep
127
What happens in stage one of sleep
Slowing of the waves , theta waves, only last a few min
128
What happens in stage 2 of sleep
This is the bulk of sleep (45%), sleep spindles and k complex form
129
What happens in stage 3 of sleep
Delta waves appear
130
What happens in stage 4 of sleep
more than 50% delta waves; relaxed muscles, decreased respiration, decrease in body temp
131
How do you get to REM sleep
Once the body reaches stage 4, it will go back to stage 3 then 2 then rem sleep
132
How often do the stages cycle
Every 90 min
133
As the night progresses we spend more time in
REM sleep
134
What is narcolepsy
Recurrent periods if an irrepressible need to sleep lapsing into sleep pr napping occurring within the same day occurring at least 3 times per week for 3 months
135
What is the prevalence of narcolepsy
.02% to .04% of the general population
136
What is narcolepsy associated with
Episodes of cataplexy , impaired timing of events associated with REM sleep
137
What are the treatments for narcolepsy
1. Stimulants and antidepressants
138
What is insomnia disorder
A predominant complaint of dissatisfaction with sleep whether it be quantity of quality
139
What are the symptoms of narcolepsy
1. Difficultly initiating sleep
2. difficultly maintaining sleep
3. Early morning awaking with inability
140
What is the psychodynamic view of dreaming
Dreams represent a window of unconscious, dreams have a meaning that must be deciphered by someone skilled in dream interpretation
141
What is the biological view of dreaming
Dreams are a biological phenomenon with no meaning, dreams are interpretations of random neural signal initiated in the pons and midbrain during REM sleep
142
Why are dreams important for memory consolidation
1. During NREM sleep, the hippocampus activates the cortex to consolidate memories
2. During REM sleep, the cortex erases old memories from the hippocampus that are fully consolidated
143
What is the cognitive view of dreaming
Dreams are a from of thought, during dreams electrical impulses activate schemas in the cerebral cortex, dreams express concerns
144
What are the effects of hypnosis
Analgesia ( lack of pain)
amnesia ( for what happened during hypnosis)
Hyperamnesia ( recall of forgotten memories)
