psychology research methods Flashcards
what is an aim
developed from theories
general statements that describe the purpose of an investigation
what is a hypothesis
a statement that is made at the start of a study and clearly describes the relationship between variables as stated by the theory
can be directional and non directional
directional- researcher makes a clear the sort of difference that is anticipated between two conditions or two groups
non directonal- states that there is a difference between conditions or groups of people but the nature of the difference is not specified
when do researchers use directional and non directional hypothesis
tend to use directional when a theory and findings of previous research studies suggest a particular outcome
tend to use non directional if there is no previous research or findings from earlier studies are contradictory
what is the independent variable
variable that is changed or manipulated
what is the dependent variable
variable that is measured and recorded to find out the effects of this change
all other variables might potentially affect the dv which should remain constant- so the researcher can be confident that any change in the dv was due to only the iv
what is operationalisation
making the variables measurable and testable
what are extraneous variables
unwanted variables
researcher should take the necessary steps to minimise their influence
what are confounding variables
an unmeasured third variable
what are demand characteristics
pps reactivity- help to second guess that experimenters intentions through clues
pps behaviour is no longer natural
what is investigator effects
unwanted influence of the investigator on the research outcome
refer to the actions of the researcher that were related to the studys design
what is randomisation
refers to the use of chance methods to reduce the researchers unconscious biases when designing an investigation- attempt to control investigator effects
lists should be randomly generated so it is not decided by the researcher
the order of conditions should be randomly determined
what is standardisation
all pps should be subject to the same environment info and experience
there is a list of what exactly should be done in the study- standardised instructions that are read to each participant
what is an independent groups design
two separate groups of pps experience to different conditions of the experiment
performance of the two groups would be compared
what is repeated measures design
all pps experience both conditions of experiment
the two mean scores from both conditions would be compaed to see if there was a difference
what is matched pairs design
pps paired together on a variable relevant to the experiment
attempt to control confounding variable and pps variable
what is the independent groups design evaluation points
WEAKNESSES
- pps who occupy the different groups are not the same in terms of pps variables
these differences may act as confounding variable
- reduces the validity of the findings
- researchers can deal with this by random allocation
- less economical than repeated measures
- twice as many pps needed
- increases time and money on recruiting pps
STRENGTHS
- order effects arent a problem
- pps less likely to guess the aims
what are the repeated measures evaluation points
WEAKNESSES
- each pps has to do at least two tasks
- researchers can deal with this through counterbalancing
- order effects may arise
- order acts as confounding variables
- more likely pps will work out the aim of the study
- demand characteristics tend to be more of a feature
STRENGTHS
- pps variables are controlled
- fewer pps needed
- less time spent on recruitment
what are the matched pairs evaluation points
STRENGTHS
- order effects are less of a problem
- demand characteristics are less of a problem
WEAKNESSES
- pps can never be matched exactly
- may be time consuming
- may be expensive
- less economical
what is counterbalancing
attempt to control order effects
half pps take part in condition A then B and the other half take part in condition B then A
what are lab experiments
highly controlled experiments
not always a lab
what are the strengths of lab experiments
- high control over confounding and extraneous variables
- more certain about establishing a cause and effect relationship
- high internal validity
- replication is more possible
what are the limitations of lab experiments
- may lack generalisability
- may be rather artificial and not like everyday life
- pps may behave in certain ways so their behaviour cant always be generalised beyond research setting
- low external validity
- pps usually aware they are being tested
- may also give rise to demand characteristics
- may not represent everyday life
- low mundane realism
what are field experiments
the iv is manipulated in a natural more everyday setting
researcher goes to pps usual environment
what are the strengths of field experiments
- higher mundane realism
- may produce behaviour that is more valid and authentic
- may be unaware they are being studied
- high external validity
what are the limitations of field experiments
- loss of control over confounding and extraneous variables
- cause and effect relationships may be more difficult to establish
- precise replication is often not possible
- ethical issues- cant consent
- may be an invasion of privacy
what are natural experiments
researcher measures the effects of iv and dv
researcher has no control over the iv and cant change it
what are the strengths of natural experiments
- produce opportunities that may not otherwise be undertaken
- high external validity
what are the limitations of natural experiments
- may only happen very rarely
- limit the scope for generalising findings
- pps may not be randomly allocated to experimental conditions
- researcher may be less sure the iv affected the dv
- may lack realism if conducted in a lab
- demand characteristics may be an issue
what are quasi experiments
have an iv that is based on existing difference between people
iv cant be changed
what are the strengths of quasi experiments
- controlled conditions
- replication
what are the limitations of quasi experiments
- cant randomly allocate pps to conditions
- may be confounding experiments
- iv is deliberately not changed
- cant claim the iv has caused any observed change
what is population
refers to the large group of individuals that a particular researcher is interested in studying
representative so can be generalised
what is a random sampling
sophisticated form of sampling
all pps have an equal chance of being selected
obtain complete list of the target population
names on list assigned a number
use of lottery method
what is systematic sampling
every nth member of target population is selected
sampling frame produced
sampling system is allocated
may begin from randomly determined start to reduce bias
researcher works through sampling frame until sample is complete
what is a stratified sample
sophisticated form of sample
composition of sample reflects proportions of people in certain subgroups (strata) within target population
researcher first identifies different strata
proportions needed for the sample are worked out
proportions that make up strata are selected using random sampling
what is opportunity sampling
decide to select anyone who happens to be willing and available
takes the chance to ask whoever is around at the time of their study
what is a volunteer sample
involves pps selecting themselves to be part of the sample
researcher may place an advert
willing pps may raise their hand when researcher asks
what are the evaluation points for random sample
STRENGTHS
- potentially unbiased
- confounding or extraneous variables should be equally divided between two groups
- enhances internal validity
WEAKNESSES
- difficult
- time consuming
- may end up with a sample that is still unrepresentative
- pps may refuse to take part
what are the systematic sample evaluation points
STRENGTHS
- objective
- researcher has no influence
WEAKNESSES
- time consuming
- pps may refuse to take part
what are the stratified sample evaluation points
STRENGTHS
- representative sample
- designed to accurately reflect the composition of pop
- generalisation of findings become possible
WEAKNESSES
- its not perfect
- cant reflect all the ways that people are different
- complete representation is not possible
what are opportunity sample evaluation points
STRENGTHS
- convenient
- much less costly in terms of time and money
WEAKNESSES
- suffer from two forms of bias
- unrepresentative of tp
- researcher has complete control over the selection of pps- may avoid people they dont like the look of (researcher bias)
what are volunteer sample evaluation points
STRENGTHS
- easy
- requires minimal input from researcher
- less time consuming
- ends up with pps who are more engaged
WEAKNESSES
- may attract a certain profile of a person- more likely to please the researcher
- affect how far the findings can be generalised
what are ethical issues
arise when a conflict or dilemma exists between pps rights and researchers needs to gain valuable and meaningful finidng s
conflict has implications for the safety and well being of pps
what is informed consent
making pps aware of the aims of the research the procedures their rights and also what their data will be used for
pps should make an informed judgement whether or not to take part without being coerced or feeling obliged
may make the study meaningless because pps behaviour will not be natural as they know the aims of the study
what is deception
deliberately misleading or withholding info from pps at any stage of the study
pps cant be said to have been given informed consent
occasions when deception can be justified if it does not cause the pps undue distress
what is protection from harm
pps should not be placed at any more risk than they would in their daily lives
should be protected from physical and pyschological harm
latter includes being made to feel embarrassed inadequate or being placed under undue stress or pressure
important feature- pps being reminded of the fact that they have the right to withdraw from the investigation at any point
what is privacy and confidentiality
pps have the right to control info about themselves- right of privacy
confidentiality- refers to our right to have any personal data protected
right to privacy extends to area where the study took place such that institutions or geographical locations are not named
what is the bps code of conduct
british psychological society
set of ethical guidelines
researcher has professional duty to observe these guidelines when conducting research
guidelines are closely matched to ethical issues
attempt to ensure all pps are treated with respect and consideration during each phase
guidelines implemented by thics committees in research institutions who often use coft benefit approach to determine whether particular research proposals are ethically acceptable
what is dealing with informed consent
pps should be issued with consent letter or form detailing all relevant info that might affect their decision to participate
under 16s a signature of parental consent is required
other ways to obtain consent
what is dealing with deception and protection from harm
pps should be given a full debrief at the end of the study
pps should be made aware of true aims of investigation and any details not supplied with during the study
pps should be told what their data is going to be used for
must be given the right to withdraw during the study and the right to withhold data
may have natural concerns related to their performance
should be reassured that their behaviour was typical or normal
if pps subject to embarrassment or stress, should be offered counselling which researchers should provide
what is dealing with confidentiality
personal details are held which must be protected
more usual to record no details
usually refer to pps using numbers or initials
standard practice briefing and debriefing
pps reminded their data will be protected
told data will not be shared with other researchers
what is presumptive consent
rather than getting consent from pps themselves, a similar group of people are asked if study is acceptable
if group agrees then consent of original pps is presumed
what is prior general consent
pps give their permission to take part in a number of different studies
by consenting pps are effectively consenting to be deceived
what is retrospective consent
pps are asked for their consent having already taken part in the study
they may not have been aware of their participation or they may have been subject to deception
what are the aims of piloting
pilot study- small scale trial run of actual investigation
involves handful pps in order to road test procedure and check investigation runs smoothly
not just restricted to experimental studies
helpful to try out questionnaire or interview questions in advance and remove or reword those that are ambiguous or confusing
in observational studies pilot studies provides a way of checking coding systems before real investigation
allows the researcher to identify any potential issues and to modify the design or procedure saving time and money in the long run
what is the single blind procedure
pps not told about the aim of the research at the beginning of the study
other details must be may be kept from pps
not revealed until the end of the study
attempt to conrol condounding effects of demand characteristics
what is the double blind procedure
neither pps nor researcher who conducts study is aware of teh aims of investigation
important feature of drug trials
expectations cant unfluence pps behaviour
what are control groups and conditions
control- refers to the baseline for the purpose of comparison
if experimental group is significantly greater than that of control group then the researcher conclude that the cause o fthis effect was the iv
what are naturalistic observations
take place in the setting or context where the target behaviour would usually occur
all aspects of environment are free to vary
what are controlled observations
control certain aspects of the research situation
some control over variables
manipulating variables to observe effects and also control of confounding and extraneous variables
what are covert observations
pps unaware they are the focus of the study
their behaviour is observed in secret
must be public and happening anyway for it to be ethical
what are overt observations
pps know their behaviour is being observed
have given informed consent beforehand
what are pps observations
observer become part of the group they are studying
what are non pps observations
researcher remains separate from those they are studying
records behaviour in a more objective manner
what was rosenhans study
observational study- investigating problem of defining abnormality
arranged 8 pseudopatients to present themselves complaining of fake symptoms of mental disorder
all 8 were admitted and given diagnosis of schizophrenia
each stopped pretending and observed daily life of patients
patients were quicker to catch on than staff
repeated writing behaviour and pacing the corridors was interpreted as a sign of anxiety
normal behaviour by researchers were seen by staff to be symptomatic of mental disorder they had been labelled with
what are the evaluation points for all observations
STRENGTHS
- benefit of capturing what people actually do
- people dont often act the same as they say they would
- useful- give an insight into behaviour
WEAKNESSES
- observer bias
- observers interpretation may be affected by their expectations
- may be reduced by using more than one researcher
- cant demonstrate casual relationships
what are the evaluation points for naturalistic observations
STRENGTHS
- high external validity
- findings can be generalised
- behaviour is studied within the environment where it would normally occur
WEAKNESSES
- replication of the investigation difficult
- may be uncontrolled confounding extraneous variables
- more difficult to judge any pattern of behaviour
what are the evaluation points of controlled observations
STRENGTHS
- confounding and extraneous variables may be less of a factor
- replication of observation becomes easier
WEAKNESSES
- cant be readily applied to everyday life
what are the evaluation points of covert observations
STRENGTHS
- removes demand characteristics
- increases internal validity of data gathered
WEAKNESSES
- ethics may be questioned
- may not want their behaviours noted down (right to privacy)
what are the evaluation points for overt observations
STRENGTHS
- more ethically acceptable
WEAKNESSES
- knowledge pps have they are being observed may act as significant influence on their behaviour
what are the evaluation points for pps observations
STRENGTHS
- researcher can experience the situation
- gives increased insight into lives of the people being studied
- increase external validity of the findings
WEAKNESSES
- researcher may come to identify too strongly with those they are studying
- may lose objectivity
- adopt local lifestyle when line between being researcher and being a pps becomes blurred
what are the evaluation points for non pps observations
STRENGTHS
- allow researcher to maintain an objective psychological distance from pps
- less danger of adopting a local lifestyle
WEAKNESSES
- may lose valuable insight
- too far removed from pps and behaviour they are studying
what is unstructured observation
researcher writes down everything they see
tends to produce accounts of behaviour rich in detail
may be appropriate when observations are small in scale and involve few pps
what is a structured observation
simplified target behaviours that will become main focus of investigation using behavioural categories
what are behavioural categories
target behaviour that has been broken up
should be precisely defined and made observable and measurable
researcher should ensure that they have included all the ways in which target behaviour may occur within their behavioural checklist
what is event sampling
counting the number of times a particular behaviour occurs in a target individual or group
what is time sampling
recording behaviour within a pre established time frame
what are the evaluation points of structured observations
STRENGTHS
- involve use of behavioural categories that make the recording of data easier and more systematic
- data produced more likely to be numerical- analysing and comparing behaviour observed is more straightforward
what are the evaluation points for unstructured
STRENGTHS
- benefit from more richness and detail
WEAKNESSES
- harder to analyse data and record
- greater risk of observer bias
what should behavioural categories look like
should be clear
observable measurable and self evident
shouldnt require further interpretation
ensure all possible forms of target behaviour are included
should not be a dustbin category where many different behaviours are deposited
should be exclusive and not overlap
what are the evaluation points for event sampling
STRENGTHS
- useful when target behaviour happens infrequently and could be missed if time sampling was to be used
WEAKNESSES
- if too complex, observer may overlook important details
what are the evaluation points for time sampling
STRENGTHS
- effective in reducing the number of observations that have to be made
WEAKNESSES
- when behaviour is sampled it might be unrepresentative of the observation as a whole
what are questionnaires
self report technique
pre set list of written questions for pps to answer
assess thoughts and feelings
may be apart of experiment to assess dependent variable
what are open questions
doesnt have fixed range of answers
respondents free to answer in any way they wish
produce qualitative data
may be difficult to analyse
what are closed questions
fixed number of responses
produce quantitative data
easy to analyse
may lack depth and detail
what are structured interviews
pre determined set of questions that are asked in a fixed order
conducted face to face
what are unstructured interviews
no set questions
general aim that a certain topic will be discussed
interaction tends to be free flowing
interviewee is encouraged to expand and elaborate their answers
what are semi structured interviews
most likely to encounter in everyday life
list of questions that have been worked out in advance
interviewers free to ask follow up questions based on previous answers
what are the evaluation points for questionnaires
STRENGTHS
- cost effective
- can gather large amounts of data quickly- can be distributed to large numbers of people
- can be completed without the researcher being present- reduces the effort
- usually straightforward to analyse
- data lends itself to statistical analysis
- comparisons between groups of people can be made using graphs and charts
WEAKNESSES
- responses given may not always be truthful
- pps may be keen to present themselves in a positive light- influence their answers (social desirability bias)
- produce response bias- respondents reply in similar ways- complete it too quickly and fail to read questions properly
what are the evaluation points for structured interviews
STRENGTHS
- straightforward to replicate
- format reduces differences between interviewers
WEAKNESSES
- interviewers cant deviate from the topic or explain their questions
- limit the richness of the data collected
- limit unexpected information
what are the evaluation points for unstructured interviews
STRENGTHS
- more flexibility
- more likely to gain insight into the worldview of interviewee
- can build a rapport
WEAKNESSES
- lead to an increase of interviewer bias
- analysis of data is not straightforward
- researcher may have to sift through irrelevant info
- drawing firm conclusions may be difficult
- risk that interviewees may lie for reasons of social desirability
what are likert scales
respondent indicates their agreement with a statement using a scale
what are rating scales
respondent identifies value that represents their strength of feeling about particular topic
what are fixed choice option
list of possible options and respondents are required to indicate those that apply to them
how do you design an interview
involves interview schedule- list of questions that interviewer intends to cover- should be standardised to reduce contaminating effect of interviewer bias
interviewer will take notes throughout or record to be analysed later
may involve a single pps and interviewer
should conduct in a quiet room- increase likelihood interviewee will open up
practice with neutral questions- make pps feel relaxed
should remind them that answers will be treated in strictest confidence
what is overuse of jargon
refers to technical terms that are only familar to those within a specialised field or area
what is emotive language and leading questions
researchers attitude towards particular topic is clear from the phrasing
guides respondent towards particular answer
what are double barrelled questions and double negatives
double barrelled- contains two questions in one- respondents may agree with one half and not the other
double negatives- may be hard to decipher
what are correlations
illustrates strength and direction of an association between two or more co variables
plotted on scattergram
one co variable represented on x axis and the other the y axis
each point or dot on the graph is the x and y position of each co variable
what are the types of correlations
positive correlation, negative correlations and zero correlations
what is the difference between correlations and experiments
experiment- researcher controls or manipulates iv to measure the effect on the dv
correlation- there is no manipulation, cant establish cause and effect relationship
what are the strengths of correlations
- useful preliminary tool for research
- provide a precise and quantifiable measure of how two variables are related
- may suggest ideas for possible future research
- often used as a starting point to assess possible patterns between variables before researchers commit to experimental study
- relatively quick and economical to carry out
- no need for manipulation or controlled environment
- data collected by others can be used
- less time consuming
what are the limitations for correlations
- studies can only tell us how variables are related but not why
- cant demonstrate cause and effect relationships- dont know which is affecting which
- could be another untested variable is causing the relationship- third variable problem
- can be misused or misinterpreted
- relationships between variables can be presented as casual when they arent
what is qualitative data
expressed in words- may take form of written description of thoughts feelings and opinions of pps
what is quantitative data
expressed numerically- may take form of individual scores from pps
open to being analysed statistically
can be converted into graphs charts etc
what is primary data
refers to original data that has been collected specifically for the purpose of the study
arrives first hand from pps
would be gathered by conducting an experiment
what is secondary data
data that has been collected by someone else
data already exists before researcher began their investigation
already been subject to statistical testing and the significance is already known
what is meta analysis
refers to process in which a number of studies are identified which have investigated the same aims/ hypothesis
results can be pooled together and a joint conclusion produced
allows to create larger more varied sample and results can then be generalised across larger populations increasing validity
can be prone to publication bias- may not select all relevant studies choosing to leave out those studies with negative or non significant results- conclusions will be biased because they only represent some of the relevant data
what are the evaluation points for qualitative data
STRENGTHS
- offers researcher richness of detail
- more broader in scope
- gives pps opportunity to more fully report feelings thoughts and opinions
- greater external validity
- more meaningful insight into pps worldview
WEAKNESSES
- difficult to analyse
- tends not to lend itself to being summarised statistically- patterns and comparisons may be hard to identify
- conclusions rely on subjective interpretations
- may be subject to bias
what are evaluation points of quantitative data
STRENGTHS
- relatively simple to analyse
- comparisons between groups can be easily drawn
- tends to be more objective
- less open to bias
WEAKNESSES
- much narrower in meaning and detail
- may fail to represent real life
what are the evaluation points for primary data
STRENGTHS
- fits the job
- authentic data
WEAKNESSES
- requires time and effort on the part of the researcher
- requires considerable planning prep resources
what are the evaluation points for secondary data
STRENGTHS
- inexpensive
- easily accessed requiring minimal effort
WEAKNESSES
- may be substantial variation in quality and accuracy of data
- may be outdated or incomplete
- content may not match researchers needs or objectives
- may challenge validity of any conclusions
what is the mean
calculated by adding all values up and dividing this by the total number of scores there are
most sensitive- more representative
easily distorted by extreme values- doesnt represent the data overall
what is the median
middle value in a data set when the scores are arranged from lowest to highest
extreme scores doesnt affect it
easy to calculate
less sensitive
lower and higher numbers are ignored- may be important
what is the mode
most frequently occurring value within a data set
easy to calculate
crude measure- not representative of the data as a whole
what is the range
worked out by taking away the lowest value from the highest value and adding 1
adding 1- rounding
may not give fair representation
doesnt indicate whether most numbers are closely grouped around mean or spread out
easy to calculate
what is standard deviation
single value that tells us how far scores deviate
the larger the standard deviation the greater the dispersion
much more precise
includes all values within final calculation
distorted by extreme value
extreme values may not be revealed
what are bar charts
can be represented visually
used when data is divided into categories- discrete data
bars are separate- denote dealing with separate conditions
what are histograms
bars touch each other- continuous data
x axis equal sized intervals
y axis represents frequency
what are scattergrams
depict associations
either co variable occupies x and y axis
each point corresponds to x and y position of co variables
what are normal distributions
frequency form bell shaped curve- symmetrical
most people located in the middle area of the curve with very few at extreme ends
mean median and mode occupy the midpoint
tails never touch horizontal x axis as they are always theoretically possible
what are positive skews
most distribution concentrated towards left resulting in long tail on the right
mode remains at the highest point then median then mean
what are negative skews
bulk of scores concentrated on the right resulting in long tail of scores on the left
mean is pulled to the left then median then mode at highest point
