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psychology psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

what is major depressive disorder

A

severe but often short term depression

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2
Q

what is persistent depressive disorder

A

long term or recurring depression

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3
Q

what is disruptive mood dysregulation disorder

A

childhood temper tantrums

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4
Q

what is premenstrual dysphoric disorder

A

disruption to mood prior to and or during menstruation

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5
Q

what are the behavioural characteristics of depression

A

activity levels- reduced levels of energy- knock on effect to withdraw from work education and social life or can lead to psychomotor agitation which is where they struggle to relax
disruption to sleep and eating behaviour- may experience insomnia or hypersomnia, eating may increase or decrease leading to weight gain or loss
aggression and self harm- often irritable and can become verbally or physically aggressive directed at others or themselves- self harm

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5
Q

what are the emotional characteristics of depression

A

lowered mood- emotional element of depression but more pronounced than the daily experience- often describe themselves as worthless and empty
anger- can be directed at the self or others
lowered self esteem- emotional experience of how much we like ourselves- less than usual- describing themselves as a sense of self loathing

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6
Q

what are the cognitive characteristics of depression

A

poor concentration- may find themselves unable to stick with a task as they usually would or find it hard making decisions that they would normally find straightforward- interfere with a persons work
attending to and dwelling on the negative- inclined to pay more attention to negative aspects of a situation- tend to recall events that are unhappy rather than those that are happy
absolutist thinking- tend to think all situations are bad- tend to see situations that are bad as absolute disasters

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7
Q

what is the faulty information processing (becks negative triad)

A

people attend to the negative aspects of a situation and ignore positives

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8
Q

what is the negative self schema (becks negative triad)

A

schema- package of knowledge developed through experience acting as a mental framework for interpretations
self schema- ideas people have about themselves- depressed have a negative self schema

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9
Q

what is the negative triad (becks negative triad)

A

person develops dysfunctional view of themselves due to three ways of thinking that occur automatically
negative view of the world, of the self and of the future

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10
Q

what is ellis’s ABC model

A

proposed that good mental health is the result of rational thinking allowing people to be happy and pain free- opposite for depressed people

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11
Q

what does the A stand for (ABC model)

A

activating event- which irrational thoughts are triggered by external events

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12
Q

what does the B stand for (ABC model)

A

beliefs- belief that we must always succeed or achieve perfection (musturbation), major disaster whenever something doesnt go smoothly (i cant stand it itis) and life is always meant to be fair (utopianism)

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13
Q

what does the C stand for (ABC model)

A

consequences- emotional and behavioural consequences when irrational beliefs are triggered by activating event

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14
Q

what are the evaluation points for becks negative triad

A

research support STRENGTHS
- supporting research
- cog vulnerability- ways of thinking that may predispose a person to becoming depressed
- clark and beck- cog vulnerabilities more common in depressed people and preceded depression
- cohen- tracked development of 473 adolescents measuring cog vulnerability regularly- showing cog vulnerability predicted depression
- association between cog vulnerability and depression
real world application STRENGTHS
- applications in screening and treatment for depression
- cohen- assessing cog vulnerability allows psychologists to screen young people- identify those at most risk and monitor them
- can be applied to cog behaviour therapy- alter kind of cognitions that make people vulnerable to depression and make them more resilient to negative life events
- an understanding of cog vulnerability is useful in more than one aspect of clinical practice
a partial explanation WEAKNESSES
- partial explanation for depression
- some aspects that arent particularly well explained
- some people feel extreme anger and some experience hallucinations and delusions

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15
Q

what are the evaluation points for ABC model

A

real world application STRENGTHS
- application in psychological treatment of depression
- rational emotive behaviour therapy- vigorously argue with depressed person therapist can alter irrational beliefs that make them unhappy
- can both change negative beliefs and relieve symptoms of depression
- has real world value
reactive and endogenous depression WEAKNESSES
- only explains reactive depression
- most cases arent traceable to life events and not obvious what leads person to become depressed
- less useful for explaining endogenous depression
- can only explain some cases of depression and therefore partial explanation
ethical issues WEAKNESSES
- locates responsibility for depression on the depressed person
- unfair

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16
Q

what is statistical infrequency

A

most obvious way to define anything as normal or abnormal based on how often we come across it
any usual behaviour is normal and anything unusual is abnormal

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17
Q

what is the example of statistical infrequency

A

intellectual disability disorder- needs an IQ of lower than 70

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18
Q

what is deviation from social norms

A

person behaves in a way that is different from how we expect people to behave
groups choose to define behaviour as abnormal on the basis that it offends their sense of what is acceptable or the norm
specific for each generation and culture
relatively few behaviours would be seen as universally abnormal on the basis that they breach social norms

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19
Q

what is an example of deviation from social norms

A

antisocial personality disorder- impulsive aggressive and irresponsible behaviour
failure to conform to lawful and culturally normative ethical behaviour
dont conform to our moral standards

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20
Q

what are the strengths for statistical infrequency

A

real world application STRENGTHS
- used in clincal practices for both formal diagnoses and assess severity of individuals symptoms
- intellectual disability disorder has to be below 70 and beck depression inventory needing a score of above 30 for severe depression
- value of statistical infrequency as useful in diagnostic and assessment processes
Benefits
- someone with intellectual disability disorder can access support services
- someone with a very high bdi is likely to benefit from therapy

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21
Q

what are the limitations of statistical infrequency

A

unusual characteristics can be positive WEAKNESSES
- can be positive as well as negative
- iq above 130 wouldnt be thought of as abnormal for having high iq
- someone with a low bdi score isnt abnormal
- being unusual or at one end of a psychological spectrum doesnt make someone abnormal necessarily
- never sufficient as the sole basis of defining abnormality
problems WEAKNESSES
- someone with low iq who can cope wouldnt benefit from this label
- social stigma attached to such labels

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22
Q

what are the strengths of deviation from social norms

A

real world application STRENGTHS
- usefulness
- used in clinical practices
- key characteristics of antisocial personality disorder failure to conform to acceptable ethical behaviour (signs of deviation from social norms)
- play a part in schizoptypal personality disorder- term strange used to describe their thinking appearance and behaviour
- value in psychiatry

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23
Q

what are the limitations of deviation from social norms

A

cultural and situational relativism WEAKNESSES
- variability between social norms in different cultures and situations
- may label someone from another group as abnormal using their standards not the persons
- experience of hearing voices would be seen as norm in some cultures but would be sign of abnormality elsewhere
- aggressive and deceitful behaviour less acceptable in family than corporate deal making
- difficult judge deviation from social norms across different situations and cultures
human rights abuses WEAKNESSES
- carries risk of unfair labelling leaving them open to human rights abuses
- seen in nymphomania and drapetomania which was a way to control slaves and avoid debate

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24
Q

what is the failure to function adequately

A

someone can no longer cope with the demands of everyday life
unable to maintain basic standards of nutrition and hygiene or cant hold a job or relationship with people around them

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25
Q

when is someone failing to function adequately

A

no longer conforms to standard interpersonal rules
person experiences severe personal distress
persons behaviour becomes irrational or dangerous to themselves or others around them

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26
Q

what is an example of failing to function adequately

A

intellectual disability disorder- diagnosis would be made if they are failing to function adequately not just on the iq

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27
Q

what is deviation from ideal mental health

A

ignore the issue of what makes someone abnormal and what makes someone normal

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28
Q

what does ideal mental health look like

A

no symptoms or distress
rational and can perceive ourselves accurately
self actualise
can cope with stress
realistic view of the world
have good self esteem and lack guilt
independent of other people
successfully work love and enjoy our leisure

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29
Q

what are the strengths for failing to function adequately

A

represents threshold for help STRENGTHS
- represents sensible threshold for when people need professional help
- most have symptoms of mental disorder at some degree at some time- mind found 25% will
- many press on in the face of severe symptoms
- tends to be at that point when we cease to function adequately that people seek professional help or are noticed and referred by others
- treatment and services can be targeted to those who need them the most

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30
Q

what are the limitations of failing to function adequately

A

discrimination and social control WEAKNESSES
- easy to label non standard lifestyle choices as abnormal
- hard to say when someone has chosen to deviate
- those who favour high risk leisure activities or unusal spiritual practices which would be classed as irrational or dangerous to themselves or others
- risk of being labelled and freedom of choice may be restricted
may not be abnormal WEAKNESSES
- circumstances where most of us fail to cope for a time bereavement
- unfair to give someone that label that might cause them future problems because they react to difficult circumstances

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31
Q

what are the strengths of deviation from ideal mental health

A

a comprehensive definition STRENGTHS
- highly comprehensive
- jahoda- range of criteria for distinguishing mental health from mental disorder
- covers most reasons why we might seek help with mental health
- means individuals mental health can be discussed meaningfully with a range of professionals who might take different theoretical views
- provides checklist in which we can assess ourselves against and discuss psychological issues with a range of professionals

32
Q

what are the limitations for deviations from ideal mental health

A

may be culture bound WEAKNESSES
- different elements arent equally applicable across range of cultures
- some of the criteria is firmly located in US and Europe
- self actualisation would be seen as self indulgent in much of the world
- within europe theres variation in the value placed on personal independence
- what defines success in working social and love lives are different in different cultures
- difficult to apply the concept of ideal mental health from one culture to another
extremely high standards WEAKNESSES
- very few attain the criteria
- not all of us achieve all of them at the same time or keep them for very long
- can be disheartening to see impossible set of standards to live up to

33
Q

what is specific phobia

A

phobia of an object

34
Q

what is social phobia

A

phobia of a social situation

35
Q

what is agoraphobia

A

phobia of being outside or in a public space

36
Q

what are the behavioural characteristics of phobias

A

panic- involve crying screaming running away or for children tantrums clinging freezing
avoidance- unless putting in alot of effort tend to go to alot of effort to avoid phobia making it hard to go about daily life
endurance- chooses to remain in prescence of phobia stimulus

37
Q

what are the emotional characteristics of phobias

A

anxiety- unpleasant state of high arousal that prevents a person from relaxing and makes it difficult to experience any positive emotions- can be long term
fear- immediate and extremely unpleasant response- usually more intense but for shorter periods than anxiety
emotional response is unreasonable- anxiety or fear greater than is normal and disproportionate to any threat posed

38
Q

what are the cognitive characteristics of phobias

A

selective attention to phobic stimulus- keep attention on it that we perceive as dangerous giving us better chance of reacting quickly to threat but not useful when fear is irrational
irrational beliefs- may hold unfounded thoughts dont have any basis in reality and cant be easily explained
cognitive distortions- perceptions may be inaccurate and unrealistic

39
Q

what is the two process model

A

phobias are acquired by classical conditioning and then continued by operant conditioning

40
Q

what is acquisition by classical conditioning

A

learning to associate something of which we initially have no fear of with something that triggers a fear response
watson and rayner- little albert- showed no unusual anxiety at the start of the study, when shown white rat he tried to play with it, researcher made loud frightening sound by banging an iron bar close to his ear when rat was present and has a fear of the white rat
can be generalised to other things such as non white rabbit and fur coat

41
Q

what is maintenance by operant conditioning

A

takes place when behaviour is reinforced or punished
mowrer- whenever we avoid phobia we successfully escape fear and anxiety that we would have experienced if we had remained there
reduction in fear reinforces avoidance behaviour so phobia is maintained

42
Q

what are the strengths of the two process model

A

real world application STRENGTHS
- application in exposure therapies
- idea that phobias are maintained by avoidance and is important in explaining why people benefit from being exposed to phobias
- once avoidance prevented it ceases to be reinforced by experience of anxiety reduction and avoidance declines
- phobia is avoidance behaviour so when this is prevented the phobia is cured
- value- identifies means of treating phobias
phobias and traumatic experiences STRENGTHS
- evidence of link between bad experiences and phobias
- little albert how frightening experience can lead to phobias
- jongth- found that 73% of people with fear of dental treatment experienced traumatic experience compared to control group with low anxiety 21% had experienced traumatic event
- confirms association between stimulus and unconditioned response leads to phobia

43
Q

what are the limitations of two process model

A

phobias and traumatic experiences WEAKNESSES
- not all phobias appear following bad experience
- some phobias such as snakes occur where few people have any experience of them let alone traumatic experiences
- not all frightening experiences lead to phobias
- association isnt as strong as we would expect
cognitive aspects of phobias WEAKNESSES
- doesnt account for cog aspects
- geared towards explaining behaviour
- phobias arent simply avoidance responses
- irrational beliefs
- doesnt offer adequate explanation for phobic cognitions
- doesnt completely explain the symptoms of phobias

44
Q

what is systematic desensitisation

A

gradually reduce phobic anxiety through classical conditioning
if learn to relax phobia will be cured
counter conditioning

45
Q

what are the three process involved in sd

A

anxiety hierarchy- put together by client and therapist ordering from least to most frightening
relaxation- teaches client to relax as deeply as possible- impossible to be afraid and relaxed at the same time (reciprocal inhibition)
exposure- exposed to phobic stimulus while in relaxed state taking few sessions starting from bottom of anxiety hierarchy

46
Q

what is flooding

A

no gradual build up to exposure
typically longer sessions than sd

47
Q

how does flooding work

A

client quickly learns that the phobia is harmless- extinction
learned response is extinguished when conditioned stimulus is encountered without unconditioned stimulus result being conditioned stimulus no longer produces conditioned response of fear
some cases client develops relaxation

48
Q

what are the ethical safeguards

A

unpleasant experience so important that clients give fully informed consent so they are fully prepared
would normally given choice between flooding and sd

49
Q

what are the strengths of sd

A

evidence of effectiveness STRENGTHS
- evidence base for its effectiveness
- gilroy- followed up 42 people who had sd in 3 45min sessions, at both 3 and 33 months they were less fearful than control group
wechsler- sd is effective for specific, social and agoraphobias
people with learning disabilities STRENGTHS
- can be used to help people with ld
- main alternatives arent suitable
- often struggle with cog therapise that require complex rational thought- may feel confused and distressed by traumatic experience of flooding
- most appropriate treatment for this

50
Q

what are the strengths of flooding

A

cost effective STRENGTHS
- highly cost effective
- can work in as little as one session to achieve the same result as sd
- even allowing for a longer session makes flooding more cost effective
- means more people can be treated at the same cost with flooding that with sd or other therapies

51
Q

what are the limitations of flooding

A

traumatic WEAKNESSES
- highly unpleasant experience
- provokes high anxiety
- schumacher- pps and therapists rated flooding as significantly more stressful than sd
- raises ethical issue for pyschologists of knowingly causing stress to clients
- more attrition (drop out) rates
- therapists may avoid using this treatment
symtom substitution WEAKNESSES
- only mask symptoms and dont tackle underlying causes of phobias
- persons- reported case of woman with phobia of death treated using flooding- fear of death declined but fear of being criticised got worse

52
Q

what is becks cognitive therapy

A

identify automatic thoughts about the world the self and the future and then must be challenged
aims to help clients test the reality of their negative beliefs and might be set homework
client as the science because the client finds out more about their negative beliefs

53
Q

what is ellis’ rational emotive behaviour therapy

A

extends to ABCDE d- dispute and e- effect
involves vigorous argument to change the irrational belief (empirical argument)
involves vigorous argument whether the negative thought logically follows the facts (logical argument)

54
Q

what is behavioural activation

A

aim to work with depressed individuals to gradually decrease their avoidance and isolation
increase their engagement in activities that have been shown to improve mood and therapist aims to reinforce such activity

55
Q

what are the strengths of cbt

A

evidence for effectiveness
- large body of evidence supporting its effectiveness
- march- compared cbt to antidepressant drugs when treating 327 adolescents, after 36weeks 81% of cbt group 81% of antidepressant group and 86% of cbt plus drugs significantly improved
- cbt fairly brief therapy so it is also cost effective
- cbt effective on its own and combined
- widely seen as the first choice in public health care systems
suitability for diverse clients
- more recent evidence that challenges the fact that it isnt suitable
- lewis and lewis- cbt was effective as antidepressant drugs and behavioural therapies
- taylor- cbt is effective for people with learning disabilities when used effectively
- may be suitable for a wider range of people than once thought

56
Q

what are the limitations to cbt

A

suitability for diverse clients
- lack of effectiveness for severe cases and for clients with learning disabilities
- in some cases it can be so severe clients cant motivate themselves to engage with cbt and may not pay attention to what is happening in a session
- complex rational thinking isnt suitable for clients with learning disabilities
- sturney- any form of psychotherapy isnt suitable for people with learning disabilities
- cbt may only be appropriate for a specific range of people with depression
relapse rates
- high relapse rates
- few studies looked at long term effectiveness
- more recent studies suggest that cbt long term outcomes are not as good as had been assumed
- Shehzard Ali- assessed 439 depressed clients every month for a year following a course of cbt, 42% of clients relapsed within 6 months and 53% relapsed within a year
- may need to be repeated periodically

57
Q

explain genes according to OCD

A

lewis- 37% of ocd patients had parents with ocd 21% had siblings with ocd- suggests that it runs in families
however what is passed on is genetic vulnerability not the certainty of ocd
diathesis stress model- certain egnes leave some people more likely to develop mental disorder but isnt certain, some environmental stress is necessary to trigger the condition

58
Q

what are candidate genes

A

create vulnerability for ocd
some of these genes involved in regulating the development of serotonin system

59
Q

what does it mean by ocd is polygenic

A

ocd ist caused by one single gene but by a combo of genetic variations that together significantly increase vulnerability
taylor- up to 230 genes may be involved in ocd and some of these are associated with the action of dopamine as well as serotonin with both neurotransmitters believed to have a role in regulating mood

60
Q

what is aetiologically hetereogeneous

A

origins of ocd vary from one person to another

61
Q

what is the role of serotonin

A

believed to help regulate mood
responsible for relaying info from one neuron to another
if person has low levels of serotinin then normal transmission of mood relevant info does not take place and a person may experience low moods

62
Q

what is the decision making systems

A

associated with abnormal functioning of the frontal lobes of the brain
frontal lobes are front part of tje brain that are responsible for logical thinking and making decisions
left parahippocampal gyrus associated with processing unpleasant emotions functions abnormally in ocd

63
Q

what is the strength of the genetic explanation

A

research support
- strong evidence base
- evidence from variety of sources strongly suggests some people are vulnerable to ocd as a result of their genotype
- nestadt- reviewed twin studies and found 68% of identical twins shared ocd as opposed to 31% non identical twins
- research found that with a family member diagnosed ocd is around 4 times as likely to develop it as someone without- marinin and stebnicki

64
Q

what are the limitations of genetic explanations

A

environmental risk factors
- environmental risk factors
- ocd doesnt entirely appear to be genetic in origin and it seems that environmental risk factors can be a trigger or increase the risk of developing
- cromer- over half of the ocd clients had experienced traumatic event in their past and ocd was more severe in those with one or more trauma
- genetic vulnerability only provides a partial explanation

65
Q

what are the strengths to the neural explanations of ocd

A

research support
- supporting evidence
- antidepressants that work on serotonin are effective in reducing ocd symptoms- serotonin may be involved
- ocd symtoms form part of conditions known to be biological in origin such as parkinsons
- biological factors may be responsible for ocd

66
Q

what are the limitations of the neural explanations for ocd

A

no unique neural system
-serotonin and ocd link may not be unique to ocd
- also experience clinical depression and having two disorders is called comobidity
- could simply be that serotonin activity is disrupted in may people with ocd because they are depressed as well
- serotonin may not be relevant to ocd symptoms

67
Q

explain ssris

A

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors work on the serotonin system in the brain- released by certain neurons in particular presynaptic neurons and travels across a synapse, neurotransmitter chemically conveys the signal from the presynaptic neuron to postsynaptic neuron and then it is reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron where it is broken down and reused
preventing reabsorption and breakdown ssris increase the levels of serotonin and continue to stimulate the postsynaptic neuron and compensates for whetever is wrong with serotonin system
daily dose of fluoxetine is 20mg but can be increased- taking three to four months to have much impact on symptoms

68
Q

can you combine ssris with other treatments

A

yes, cbt and other drugs are prescribed
ocd patients engage more effectively with cbt

69
Q

what are some alternatives to ssris

A

tricyllics- older type of antidepressant such as clomipramine (more severe side effects so generally kept in reserve for those who dont respond to ssris), acts on various systems where is has the same effect as ssris
snris- serotonin noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors, are a second line of defence for people who dont respond to ssris, increase levels of serotonin and noradrenaline

70
Q

what are some strengths of treatments

A

evidence of effectiveness
- evidence for effectiveness
- ssris reduce symptom severity and improve quality of life for people with ocd
- mustafa soomro reviewed 17studies that compared ssris to placebos, all showed better outcomes for ssris and typically symptoms reduce for around 70% of people taking them and 30% can be helped by either alternatives or combo
- drugs appear to be helpful for most
cost effective
- cost effective and non disruptive to peoples lives
- cheap compared to psychological treatments
- good value to public health systems and represents good use of limited funds
- psychological therapies involves time spent attending therapy sessions
- drugs are popular with many people with ocd and their doctors

71
Q

what are the limitations of treatments of ocd

A

evidence for effectiveness
- even if drug treatments are helpful may not be the most effective treatments available
- shapinakis carried out systematic review of outcome studies and concluded that both cognitive and behavioural therpies were more effective than ssris
- drugs may not be the optimum treatment for ocd
serious side effects
- can potentially have serious side effects
- small minority will get no benefit
- blurred vision loss of sex drive and can be distressing and long lasting
- 1 in 10 experience erection problems and weight gain, 1 in 100 become aggressive and experience heart related problems
- people have reduced quality of life as a result and may stop taking them altogether meaning the drugs cease to be effective

72
Q

what is ocd

A

characterised by either obsessions and or compulsions

73
Q

what is trichotillomania

A

compulsive hair pulling

74
Q

what is hoarding disorder

A

compulsive gathering of possessions and the inability to part with anything regardless of its value

75
Q

what is excoriation disorder

A

compulsive skin picking

76
Q

what are the behavioural characteristics of ocd

A

compulsions are repetitive, compulsions reduce anxiety- performed in an attempt to manage the anxiety produced by obsessions, avoidance- attempt to reduce anxiety by keeping away from situations that trigger it can lead people to avoid very ordinary situations and can interfere with leading a regular life

77
Q

what are the emotional characteristics of ocd

A

anxiety and distress- unpleasant and frightening and the anxiety can be overwhelming the urge to repeat a behaviour creates anxiety, accompanying depression- anxiety accompanied by low mood and lack of enjoyment in activities compulsive behaviour tends to bring some relief from anxiety but this is temporary, guilt and disgust- directed against something external like dirt or at the self

78
Q

what are the cognitive characteristics of ocd

A

obsessive thoughts, cognitive coping strategies- may help manage anxiety but can make the person appear abnormal to others and distract them from everyday tasks, insight into excessive anxiety- aware their obsessions and compulsions are not rational and have worst case scenarios that might result if anxieties were justified and also tend to be hypervigilant (maintain constant alertness and keep attention focused on potential hazards)

sociology and psychology (34 decks)

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