psychology AOS#1 Flashcards
psychology
scientific study of human mental states and behaviour (observable actions)
father of modern psychology
wilhelm wundt
brain vs heart debate
is the brain or heart responsible for central functions?
central functions
thoughts, feelings, emotions
mind body problem
are the mind and body seperate entities (dualism) or the same thing (monoism)
dualism: mind and body are seperate because of how seperate their nature is eg. the things they do and the substances they are
monoism: mind and body are the same substance –> mental states ARE physical states
phrenology
feeling the bumps and grooves of the skull to determine intelligence, personality etc.
localisation of function originated from phrenology
autopsy
examination of the brain after death. helpful in initial studies of the brain
ablation
surgical removal of brain tissue
showed how brain worked when damaged and which area was responsible for what.
discovered mind was in brain not in heart
electrical brain stimulation
electrically stimulates parts of the brain to stimulate neuron activity. discovered that right hand was controlled by left brain
split brain studies
confirmed left and right hemispheres have different functions
conducted by rodger sperry and michael gazzaniga in 1960
neuroimaging techiques
a range of techniques used to capture images of the brain structure and functioning
- much less invasive than previous methods
CT scan
computerised tomography: structural
the patient ingests dye called contrast and then continuous 2D x-ray images are taken and processed to create a 3D image.
advantages: enables disease and cancer detection and does not need to be used as frequently as other methods
disadvantages: black and white only, can be dangerous if used excessively.
MRI
magnetic resonance imaging: structural
uses magnetic and radio fields to take 2D and 3D images of a person’s brain
the magnetic field causes atoms to move and send signals which can be captured as an image
advantages: less harmful than CT and more detailed than a CT scan
disadvantages: cannot be used with pacemakers or internal screws.
fMRI
functional magnetic resonance imaging
traces oxygen levels in the brain –> the more active a part is, the more oxygenated it will be
advantages: more detailed than a PET scan, and is the safest, most detailed option we have at the moment
PET
positron emission technology
person is injected with radioactive glucose solution which ‘lights up’ active parts of the brain. patients are then asked to perform certain activities in a chamber.
advantages: very useful for tracking brain activity
disadvantages: uses radioactive substances so it can be invasive
structural neuroimaging techniques
produces images of brains structure and composition
functional neuroimaging techniques
shows how the brain functions to perform specific tasks. can show both brain structure and brain activity.
nervous system
network of cells allowing for communicaton around the body
main functions of the nervous system
to recieve information
to transmit information
to process information
to formulate and coordinate a response
central nervous system
made up of the brain and spinal cord. coordinates information from the PNS and creates a necessary response
brain
coordinates thought, behaviour, and nervous system
spinal chord
connects the brain to PNS. carries motor information from the brain and sensory information from the body.
peripheral nervous system
all nerves outside of the CNS
carries information to and from the CNS
the somatic nervous system
sends motor information from CNS to skeletal muscles, and brings sensory information from the body to the CNS.
Formulates voluntary responses.
example of the somatic nervous system
it is raining
- body registers rain from the external environment
- SNS sends sensory information to the CNS
- CNS processes this information and coordinates a response
- CNS sends motor messages to skeletal muscles telling them to open up the umbrella
the autonomic nervous system
connects CNS to non-skeletal muscles, organs, and glands.
—> initiates responses and sends information to the CNS about these.
- -> Mostly involuntary although control can be gained eg slowed breathing
the sympathetic nervous system
responsible for activating the body’s visceral muscles organs and glands, during increased activity or threat.
–> could involve increasing or decreasing regular activity
responsible for the flight/fight response
what chemical is responsible for flight/fight response
adrenaline aka. epinephrine is released when under threat etc.
the parasympathetic nervous system
branch of the ANS that returns and maintains visceral muscles, organs, and glands to optimal and balanced functioning
maintains homeostasis
gently brings body back to normal after heightened arousal of a sympathetic response –> like a parachute
what would the nervous system do if it heard the phone ring unexpectedly?
- receive information: vibrating air molecules are received by sense receptors
- transmit information: information is sent to the brain via the auditory nerve
- process information: brain processes auditory information as your phone ringing
- coordinate a response: brain sends messages along nerve pathways to activate muscles to pick up the phone and answer it.
neurons
nerve cell responsible for transmitting, receiving, and processing information around the brain and nervous systems.
information is sent through neural messages.
electrochemical messages
chemicals that contain neural messages are sent between neurons, which is powered by an electrical current generated within a neuron.
neurotransmission
electric current (action potential) arrives to the end of the neuron, and chemicals are released
neural reception
chemical message is recieved by neuron
neural pathways
neurons are organised into pathways which are the basis for all we think, feel, and do
when we learn something, new pathways are formed or old ones strengthened
motor neuron
efferent neuron
messages are sent from CNS to muscles, organs, and glands. communicates information about movement
sensory neuron
afferent neurons
communicates information about sensations
information is sent from sense organs to CNS
—> sense organs have sensory receptors that convert sensory information into neural messages.
interneurons
relates neural messages between motor and sensory neurons. only found in the CNS
the synapse
area in which neurotransmission occurs between neurons
contains
- presynaptic neuron: a neuron that releases messages into the synapse
- synaptic gap: space between neurons where message is transmitted
- post synaptic neuron: neuron that receives the message from the synapse
dendrites
bushy branches that receive neurotransmitters during neural communication
soma
where message is processed and electrical energy is generated
axon
transmits electrical neural messages toward axon terminals
myelin sheath
insulates the axon, protecting messages and speeding up electrical impulse
axon terminal
responsible for the release of neurotransmitters
electric messages reach ‘synaptic buttons’, where neurotransmitters are contained and then released
glial cells
protects and supports neurons and their functioning
functions of glial cells
holds neurons in place provide neurons with nutrients repair and remove damaged neurons keeps each neuron separate produces myelin which can be absorbed by neurons aids in neurotransmission
hind brain
includes medulla, pons, cerebellum
- -> autonomic breathing
- -> basic movement
- -> some fundamental functions
midbrain
the center part of the brain stem
- -> process sensory information
- –> regulates sleep and physiological arousal
- –> involved in motor movement
reticular formation
cluster of neurons that connects to parts of the brain and spinal cord.
- –> located in midbrain
- –> filters information from the brain - sends info to correct parts of brain
- –> regulates sleep-wake and consciousness
- –> regulates physiological arousal and alertness
forebrain
made of thalamus, hypothalamus, cerebrum
- –> cognition
- –> perception
- –> learning
- –> memory
thalamus
Information from all of the senses, (excluding smell), pass through the thalamus
the thalamus filters the most important information and directs it to other parts of the brain
cerebral cortex
thin outer layer of the cerebrum
- -> processes complex sensory information
- -> voluntary movement initiation
- -> language
- -> emotional regulation
contralateral functions
left controls the right, the right controls the left side
localisation of functions
different brain areas responsible for different behaviours and mental processes
left hemisphere
verbal and analytical functions
- -> reading
- -> writing
- -> speaking
- -> step-by-step analysis
right hemisphere
non verbal functions
- -> visual awareness for places, faces, and objects
- -> spatial awareness eg. solving a jigsaw, visualising shapes
- -> most dominant when appreciating art
frontal lobe
high order mental processes, emotions, voluntary movement
- ->logic
- -> reasoning
- -> personality
- -> speech
prefrontal cortex
part of the frontal lobe
higher-order cognitive processes
–> reasoning, decision making, symbolic thinking
premotor cortex
plans required sequences for motor movements
–> kicking a ball: planning to see where ball goes
primary motor cortex
initiates voluntary movements
–> sends motor messages to skeletal muscles - contralateral
broca’s area
production of speech
–> coordinates mouth, tongue, muscle movement etc.
broca’s aphrasia
broken speech
- -> cannot properly express words but knows what they are
- -> poor or absent grammar
- -> omission of certain words
- -> “cup, me” instead of “i want the cup”
parietal lobe
receiving and processing sensory information and spatial awareness.
–> touch, temperature, pain
primary somatosensory cortex
receiving and processing sensory information. important for spatial awareness.
spatial neglect syndrome
caused usually by a stroke in the right parietal lobe
- -> leads to left visual field neglect
- -> left side is essentially non-existent
occipital lobe
visual stimuli
primary visual cortex
receives sensory information from sensory receptors in the eyes.
temporal lobe
auditory perception
–> involved in memory, visual perception, and emotions
primary auditory cortex
perception of sounds
–> different areas are for different sounds
Wernicke’s area
comprehension of speech
–> interprets sound to give it meaning
Wernickes aphasia
word salad
- -> saying many words that don’t make sense
- -> unable to understand the meaning of words
- -> able to speak well in long sentences but they don’t make sense
- -> use of the wrong words or nonsense words
- -> inability to understand written words.
plasticity
the ability of the brain to change physically in response to experience and learning
developmental plasticity
changes due to maturity and ageing
- -> occurs from foetus to 25 years old
- -> changes due to learning and memories
developmental plasticity during infancy
neural connections (synapses) increase --> synaptogenesis
developmental plasticity during adolesense
neural connections are refined and reduced
myelinatoin
formation of myelin around axons
–> occurs from infancy into early adulthood
synaptic pruning
elimination of underused synapses - synapses that aren’t used or activated
- -> makes way for essential connections
- -> a child’s neural density is almost 2x the amount of adults.
frontal lobe development in infancy
the last area of the brain to mature
- -> synaptic density increases from infancy until 10 years old
- -> size of the frontal lobe develops
- -> some myelination occurs
frontal lobe development in adolescence
last area of the brain to develop
- -> synaptic pruning and myelination
- -> emotional maturity and rationality develops
adaptive plasticity
brain adapting to compensate for trauma and injury
- -> compensates for lost functionality
- -> restores and enhances neural functioning over time
components of developmental plasticity
- -> proliferation: neurons form in infancy
- -> migration: neurons move from where they are formed to where they will stay
- -> synaptogenesis: axons grow and form connections to other neurons
- -> synaptic pruning: underused synapses are cut off and pruned
- -> myelination: insulation of neurons
impact of injury on biological functioning
largely related to movement
- -> loss of movement in different areas of the body
- -> eg. paralysis: the brain is unable to send adequate messages to the muscles
impacts of injury on psychological functioning
memory impairments
- -> can disrupt links and connections
- -> may have difficulty making sense of information
- -> difficulty with decision making, planning, mood, emotional regulation
impacts of injury on social functioning
impact on personality
- -> can affect relationships with friends or family
- -> could result in social withdrawl
sprouting
development of new branches on dendrites and axon terminals
rerouting
form new connection with another undamaged neuron
neurological disorder
disease characterised by any damage or malfunctioning of the nervous system
–> changes that impair neural functioning
neurodegenerative disorder
a progressive loss of neurons in the brain
–> negative change to neural functioning
parkinsons disease
a neurodegenerative disease of the nervous system involving motor and non-motor symptoms
- -> caused by the loss of dopamine-producing neurons in the substantia nigra (located in the mid brain)
- -> dopamine is responsible for the coordination of smooth voluntary movements
symptoms of parkinsons disease
symptoms are degenerative
- -> trembling in hands arms legs etc.
- -> stiffness of the limbs
- -> slowness of movement
- -> impaired balance and coordination, sometimes leading to falls
animal studies - levodopa
Parkinson’s medication converted to dopamine by neurons
- -> conducted by Carlsson (1957) on rabbits with medically induced low levels of dopamine
- -> levodopa helps to restore motor functions of rabbits
animal studies - deep brain stimulation
an electrical current stimulates a particular region of the brain to increase neural functioning –> very invasive
- -> electrodes are planted into substantia nigra
- -> electrodes create electrical impulse
- -> can cause other issues eg. stroke, depression, anxiety
tested on the brains of dogs
functional neural imaging techniques and Parkinsons disease
functional techniques
- -> examines levels of activity in the Basal Ganglia
- -> low levels of activity due to decreased dopamine
- -> very important in early detection
structual neural imaging techniques and Parkinsons disease
degeneration of dopamine neurons causes brain mass to decrease in basal galinga (where substantia nigra is)
–> used to make an informed judgement of Parkinson’s
