psychological research

Question 1

identify key points in the history of psychological science

Answer 1

earliest record was metaphysical/supernatural where human experiences and behaviour were attributed to nonphysical forces. ancient greeks only used logic and intuition. scholars over time became dissatisfied with the absence of evidence. mid-late 1800s Germany - started tackling q’s in cognitive P - initial resistance but now empirical evidence in all domains

Question 2

why was there initial resistance to psychology as an empirical scientific field?

Answer 2

introducing science to assess human experience was seen as an insult to religion

Question 3

what are the 4 key features of psychological science?

Answer 3

determinism, parsimony, systematic empiricalism, testability

Question 4

describe determinism

Answer 4

assumptions are in order with no randomness or chaos. the events have systematic meaningful causes

Question 5

describe parsimony

Answer 5

aims to have the simplest explanation
prefers simplicity over complexity
explanations and causes should not include unnecessary factors of processes
occam’s razor concept

Question 6

describe systematic empiricism

Answer 6

a structured, organised approach to gathering data/observations in order to answer questions

Question 7

what is testability?

Answer 7

when ideas should be confirmed or discomfirmed using available research techniques

Question 8

what is falsifiability?

Answer 8

concept linked to testability. the openess of researchers to let their idea be disconfirmed (shown to be wrong)

Question 9

what are the benefits of taking a scientific approach to studying psychological q’s?

Answer 9

enables systematic collection of empirical data that would be hard to obtain via intuition/logic/causal observation

provides evidence across multiple studies to support particular answers to a Q

builds valid evidence informed theory

can rule out answers that aren’t supported by evidence

can produce recommendations for policy and practiced based approaches

Question 10

what are the 7 steps in the research process?

Answer 10

generate a research question, consult theory, state hypotheses, set up study, collect data, analyse data and interpret results, answer the research question

Question 11

define theory

Answer 11

a general principle or set of principles that explain a phenomenon or event

Question 12

what is a hypothesis?

Answer 12

a prediction to be tested in a research study

Question 13

define a theoretical/conceptual framework

Answer 13

a set of principles presented in a systematic or structured way

Question 14

describe the role theory plays in research processes

Answer 14

can be used to develop a new research question, some principles may only have a few supported studies so can be strengthened by replication

there may be competing explanations that require clarification

can be used to answer a research question

can refer to theory developed to explain other phenomena

results from research studies inform theory by (dis)confirming existing principles, adding new principles with new factors/processes
(theory is continually being updated depending on what research shows)

Question 15

why is theory important to the research process?

Answer 15

theories offer systematic explanations for the causes and consequences of perceptions, beliefs, emotions, actions
(cant rely on intuition or popular beliefs)
theory provides a systematic recipe for doing empirical research - more structure
provides a rationale for development of research questions
theories inform recommendations for practice/application

Question 16

explain why every research study needs a rationale

Answer 16

every study needs a rationale (justification) as an argument for why this study will make a novel contribution to existing knowledge. Conducting a study has many potential costs (money, time, resources) why should the study use these up?
In a world of limited time and resources, we need a good reason for conducting and reporting any research study
Reported research also becomes part of the literature of the topic

Question 17

what is a rationale?

Answer 17

good enough reason for a research study to be carried out

Question 18

what are the 3 types of rationales for conducting a research study?

Answer 18

new contributions to theory or conceptual understanding
new contributions to methodology
new contributions to practice

Question 19

describe different types of novel contributions to research

Answer 19

the first test of a new principle, testing competing explanations, replicating a result that hasn’t been widely tested, extension of research

Question 20

what are the 2 different types of research questions?

Answer 20

differences between groups

relationship between variables

Question 21

what are the 3 different types of hypotheses that can be generated from a research question?

Answer 21

null hypothesis
experimental/alternative
directional

Question 22

what is the difference between systematic and unsystematic variation?

Answer 22

systematic = variation due to the effect that is being investigated
unsystematic = variation due to other reasons than the effect being investigated

Question 23

give examples of unsystematic variation

Answer 23

individual differences, context, mood, different researchers, characteristics of study

Question 24

what is the aim of research?

Answer 24

to investigate how much of the overall variation in a study is systematic or unsystematic

Question 25

explain the aim and logic of null hypothesis testing

Answer 25

there will never be systematic variation only always be unsystematic variation (variation due to other effects) unsystematic V only = null = no effect (all due to other reasons) systematic and unsystematic = experimental we focus on null hypothesis because its the simplest to investigate if we are right about the H1 we need to discredit the opposing H0 of no systematic effect testing H0 emphasises disconfirmation/falsifiability if we find no evidence for H0 then we can conclude that there is support for H1

Question 26

what is probability?

Answer 26

chance of an event occurring ranging from 0-1

Question 27

explain how probability fits into the logic of null hypothesis testing

Answer 27

can never be 100% certain that the decision to discredit 'unsystematic variation only' is the correct one as we can never confirm with absolute certainty, so we use probability to evaluate the extent to which we may be right to discredit the null hypothesis and prove there is an effect to the research question

Question 28

define population

Answer 28

set of individuals with the particular characteristic(s) under investigation in a research Q

Question 29

define samples

Answer 29

selection of some individuals from the population to take part in a study used to estimate what happens in a population

Question 30

explain why samples are needed

Answer 30

don't have access, time, resources, not all population will want to participate solution = sample to represent the larger population

Question 31

explain the role of populations and samples in hypothesis tests

Answer 31

researchers use samples to test hypotheses about what is happening in the population

Question 32

what is sampling error?

Answer 32

``` likely discrepancy (difference) between the results found in a particular sample and the results that would of been obtained from the population captures extent to which a sample is representative of population ```

Question 33

what 2 factors influence sampling error?

Answer 33

sample size | sample strategy

Question 34

high level of representativeness = | low level of representativeness =

Answer 34

low sampling error | high sampling error

Question 35

why is a random sample better?

Answer 35

lower sampling error | less chance of any systematic bias in strategy

Question 36

what are the 3 different types of sampling strategies?

Answer 36

random - random selection from whole population stratified - random selection from sub groups opportunity - advertised, self selected sample

Question 37

the pro of random and stratified sampling is that it is likely to produce a representative sample. what are the cons of these 2 sampling methods?

Answer 37

higher costs need lots of info about participants and subgroups may need incentives for people to participate

Question 38

define categorical and continuous variables

Answer 38

categorical: - each individual assigned to a group/category - no numerical value/meaning continuous: - scores can be ordered on a continuum from low to high - numerical value/meaning

Question 39

differentiate between within participants and between participants designs

Answer 39

within = every participant is in every condition of the study so each condition has the same group of participants so each participant produces a DV score in every condition (repeated measures design) between = each participant is in 1 condition of the study so each condition has a distinct group of Ps so each P provides a DV score in 1 condition (independent measures design)

Question 40

what are the 2 different types of experiments conducted from a between participants design?

Answer 40

true experiment and quasi experiment

Question 41

differentiate between a true and quasi experiment (the different ways participants are allocated to a condition)

Answer 41

true = random assignment of individuals to groups/conditions (equal chance) quasi = non random assignment of individuals (makes use of pre-existing groups)

Question 42

what are the pros and cons of within participants design

Answer 42

pros: can use smaller sample no ethical issues around assignment to condition less chance of individual differences between conditions cons: more likely to guess aim order effects - repetition, practice, interference (can address these effects by counterbalancing)

Question 43

what are the pros and cons of between participants design

Answer 43

``` pros: less likely to guess aim no order effects cons: need larger sample potential ethical issue if assigned to 1 condition may be individual differences ```

Question 44

what is counterbalancing?

Answer 44

systematically varying the order in which participants complete the conditions in a within-ps design (typically via random allocation to different orders)

Question 45

what are the pros of a true experiment?

Answer 45

pros: random = reduces unintended individual differences between conditions/groups cons: random assignment may not be possible as participants may already belong to a group being studied, may be ethical issues, practical constraints

Question 46

what are the pros and cons of a quasi experiment?

Answer 46

pros: can be used in contexts where random assignment is not possible cons: non random = potential unintended individual differences as people in pre existing groups may share other characteristics that may explain differences found

Question 47

what types of studies are used to investigate relationships between variables?

Answer 47

categorical study and correlational study

Question 48

differentiate the two different studies that can be chosen when looking at approaches to time

Answer 48

cross sectional = single point in time | correlational = over a period of time

Question 49

what are the 5 types of measures used in research studies

Answer 49

self report, implicit, biological, test/task performance, behaviour

Question 50

what is the ideal for choosing an appropriate measure in a research study?

Answer 50

high alignment of measure with variable (direct links between measure and variable being assessed) low demand characteristics low level of bias

Question 51

high potential for bias when choosing a measure is caused by?

Answer 51

socially desirable responses | wanting to help the researcher

Question 52

demand characteristics of a measure are high when?

Answer 52

participants can guess the aim/purpose of measure | responses to measure are under conscious control and made deliberately e.g. self report

Question 53

what are the 3 most common research settings used in studies?

Answer 53

``` FIELD STUDIES (some control, real world natural environment) LAB STUDIES (full control, artificial context) ONLINE/MAIL STUDIES (no control, self report, questionnaires) ```

Question 54

what 2 things are important when choosing an appropriate research setting?

Answer 54

high internal validity | high external validity

Question 55

what is the difference between internal and external validity?

Answer 55

``` external = study provides a valid accurate representation of the real world phenomenon internal = study provides a valid accurate answer to the research Q ```

Question 56

when is internal validity higher in a research setting?

Answer 56

when the researcher has more control over the setting as it reduces sources of variation

Question 57

describe the historical context in which research ethics have been developed

Answer 57

1800s-early 1900s - research focused on science and the best most rigorous methods little consideration given to participant experience and feelings nazi scientists forced prisoners in jails/conc. camps to partake suffered extreme physical and psychological harm this brought participant experience to attention Nuremberg code developed after WW2 code created to protect all humans who participate in medical and scientific research inspired modern ethical principles

Question 58

what are research ethics?

Answer 58

use and application of moral principles and practice in the context of research using (human) participants consideration of risks vs benefits

Question 59

what are the possible risks of conducting research?

Answer 59

physical and psychological harm to ppts, wasting ppts time for no substantive purpose, misinterpretation/misuse of research outcomes

Question 60

what are the possible benefits of conducting research?

Answer 60

``` academic impact (scientific knowledge to build theory) real world impact (insights to improve practice) personal benefit (insights into self and world) ```

Question 61

list the 4 general principles of the BPS code of research ethics

Answer 61

respect for autonomy, privacy, dignity of individuals and communities maximising benefits and minimising harm scientific integrity social responsibility

Question 62

what are the 8 specific ethical considerations in psychology research?

Answer 62

``` informed consent freedom from coercion confidentiality anonymity debriefing minimise risk of harm contribute knowledge and insights avoid misuse/misinterpretation of results ```

Question 63

what 5 specific considerations come under the autonomy, privacy and dignity principle?

Answer 63

informed consent, freedom from coercion, confidentiality, anonymity, debriefing

Question 64

what specific consideration is linked with the scientific integrity principle?

Answer 64

contribute knowledge and insights

Question 65

what specific consideration is linked with the social responsibility principle?

Answer 65

avoid misuse/misinterpretation of results

Question 66

freedom from coercion =

Answer 66

no persuasion using threats or force | individuals are free to decide to not participate, withdraw, leave any task/Q unanswered

Question 67

confidentiality =

Answer 67

maintenance of a participants privacy

Question 68

anonymity =

Answer 68

can't identify individuals from their responses

Question 69

what is the difference between active and passive deception?

Answer 69

passive = withholding the full truth or key pieces of relevant info e.g. not mentioning specific variables being measured or describing the full aim of the study active = intentionally misinforming participants about the true state of affairs in a study e.g. using confederates, altering test scores to low even if ppt did well to see reaction

Question 70

what are the ethical problems with deception?

Answer 70

violates principle of fully informed consent, participants may experience negative harmful responses, participants may leave the study with misleading info even after being told it was false, participants may mistrust researchers

Question 71

explain why deception is still used in psychology

Answer 71

want to study honest real responses to real world events, telling participants the precise aims/hypotheses/variables could influence their responses, therefore passive deception helps minimise demand characteristics may not be possible to recreate a real world event while telling the full truth

Question 72

why are the benefits of active deception?

Answer 72

helps maximise experimental realism (extent to which a study engages ppts attention so it feels like a genuine activity/experience to them) helps maximise researcher control (holds everything constant except the variables of interest)

Question 73

which is more acceptable, active or passive deception?

Answer 73

passive

Question 74

how should deception be used in psychology studies?

Answer 74

only use either type of deception if necessary weigh up the risks vs benefits always carefully debrief participants

Question 75

explain why we need to quantify variation and how descriptive stats helps

Answer 75

aim of research = investigate how much of variation is systematic and unsystematic to differentiate between these 2 types we need to quantify them (else not valid or accurate) calculations used to quantify are based on info about the scores in the sample

Question 76

what are the 2 types of descriptive statistics?

Answer 76

measures of central tendency | measures of dispersion

Question 77

what is the point of central tendency (in a set of scores)?

Answer 77

the score that is the most representative or typical

Question 78

why is the point of central tendency useful? give 2 reasons

Answer 78

simple description that offers a best guess about the most likely score in a sample and is an essential component of calculating some measures of dispersion

Question 79

what are the 3 measures of central tendency?

Answer 79

mean, median, mode

Question 80

what measures of central tendency are appropriate for continuous measures?

Answer 80

mean and median

Question 81

what measures of central tendency are appropriate for categorical measures?

Answer 81

mode

Question 82

with continuous measures when is it more appropriate to use mean or median?

Answer 82

mean is used more frequently because it offers more info than median and reflects the actual value of all the scores median is better to use when there are outliers in the set

Question 83

define the concept of dispersion

Answer 83

dispersion = distribution of scores | allows us to quantify the variation found in a set of scores

Question 84

what are the 3 measures of dispersion?

Answer 84

range, variance, standard deviation

Question 85

define variance

Answer 85

the spread of scores around the mean as a point of reference

Question 86

describe how you calculate the variance

Answer 86

1) calculate mean 2) calculate difference of each score from the mean 3) square these deviance values to get + no.s 4) add up all squared numbers (total sum of deviance) 5) divide sum by number of scores - 1

Question 87

what is wrong with calculating just the variance?

Answer 87

not in standard measurement units so need to square root the value to find out the standard deviation

Question 88

what is the definition of standard deviation?

Answer 88

the spread of scores around the mean as a point of reference, IN STANDARD MEASUREMENT UNITS

Question 89

symmetrical, bell shaped curve, mean roughly in middle, scores mostly clustered around the mean. what type of distribution is this?

Answer 89

normal distribution

Question 90

skewed to the right, mean slightly to right of curve, bulk of scores at lower end. what type of distribution is this?

Answer 90

positively skewed distribution

Question 91

skewed to the left, mean slightly to left of curve, bulk of scores at higher end. what type of distribution is this?

Answer 91

negatively skewed distribution

Question 92

explain the 68 - 95 - 99.7 rule

Answer 92

``` 68% = all scores lie within 1SD of the mean 95% = all scores lie within 2SDs of the mean 99.7% = all scores lie within 3SDs of the mean ``` increasing the number of SDs increases the range of scores included nearly all scores in a set will lie within 3SDs of the mean

Question 93

explain the formula used to predict peoples scores in the population

Answer 93

just need to know the mean and SD formula = mean (+ or -) 1/2/3 SDs a higher % score of 99.7% has a larger range than 68% score showing distribution

Question 94

95% confidence =

Answer 94

1.96 SDs | represents 95% of scores as a standardised value

Question 95

what is the confidence interval formula?

Answer 95

mean +/- 1.96 x SD/square root (n)

Question 96

why is the confidence interval calculated?

Answer 96

to identify the range of scores that is likely to include the true population mean

Question 97

explain why increases in sample size reduce the size of confidence intervals

Answer 97

smaller interval = fewer scores in possible range = more precise estimate of population mean

Question 98

why does a larger sample size give us a more precise estimate?

Answer 98

reduces sampling error and therefore reduces the discrepancy between the sample and the population

Question 99

define certainty

Answer 99

level of confidence that the true population mean lies within the range estimated from the sample

Question 100

95% confidence = __% uncertainty

Answer 100

5 | 5% uncertainty that the mean lies within the interval

Question 101

higher level of confidence = | smaller interval size =

Answer 101

more certainty | more precise estimate

Question 102

researchers ideally want what 2 things when looking at confidence intervals?

Answer 102

``` high certainty (high confidence interval) high precision (smaller interval sizes) ``` but difficult to have both at same time so solution is a trade off between certainty and precision trade off = 95% confidence interval

Question 103

why is the 95% confidence interval a good compromise?

Answer 103

represents an acceptable middle ground of reasonably good certainty and reasonably good precision

Question 104

explain how researchers come to make decision errors when testing the null hypothesis

Answer 104

samples can offer imperfect estimates of the characteristics due to sampling error and unsystematic variation if sample statistics don't match the real population parameters, researchers will make a decision error when making inferences about the population based on the results from the study so... the decision to accept or reject the null hypothesis could be wrong

Question 105

a researcher finds an effect in the sample, when no effect actually exists in the population. what type of error is this?

Answer 105

type 1 error

Question 106

a researcher finds no effect in the sample, when an effect does actually exist in the population. what type of error is this?

Answer 106

type 2 error

Question 107

false positive =

Answer 107

type 1 error | we think there is an effect when there actually isn't

Question 108

false negative =

Answer 108

type 2 error | we think there is no effect when there actually is

Question 109

if a researcher makes a type 1 error do they accept or reject the null hypothesis?

Answer 109

reject | make the wrong decision

Question 110

if a researcher makes a type 2 error do they accept or reject the null hypothesis?

Answer 110

accept | make the wrong decision

Question 111

explain possible reasons for type 1 errors

Answer 111

sampling error bias in participants responses effect occurred randomly/by chance

Question 112

explain possible reasons for type 2 errors

Answer 112

sampling error | unsystematic variation

Question 113

explain sampling error as a reason for type 1 and type 2 errors

Answer 113

type 1: effect is not present in overall population but individuals who do show the effect are over-represented in the sample type 2: effect is present in overall population but individuals who don't show the effect are over represented in the sample

Question 114

incorrectly reject the null hypothesis = | incorrectly accept the null hypothesis =

Answer 114

type 1 error | type 2 error

Question 115

define p value

Answer 115

probability of finding an effect in a sample if there is no effect in the population (probability of making a type 1 error) (probability of incorrectly finding an effect in a study)

Question 116

what is the p value range?

Answer 116

0-1 | 0 = certainly won't occur, 1 = certainly will occur

Question 117

explain why p values can never be exactly 0 or 1

Answer 117

because we can never be 100% certain about our inferences

Question 118

what does a small p value mean?

Answer 118

low probability of having made a type 1 error

Question 119

if the p value is small, do researchers accept or reject the null hypothesis?

Answer 119

reject | because unlikely that a type 1 error (effect in sample but not in population) has been made