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Psychological Disorders Flashcards

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1
Q

Defining Abnormality

A 
Psychological disorders – meet at least two of criteria below 
Unusualness
Deviance from the social norm
Significant distress
Maladaptive
Danger to self or others
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2
Q

Major Depressive Disorder

A

Depressed mood
Loss of interest or pleasure in activities
>5% weight loss/gain or decrease/increase in appetite
Insomnia or hypersomnia
Psychomotor agitation or retardation
Fatigue or loss of energy
Feelings of worthlessness or inappropriate guilt
Diminished concentration or indecisiveness
Recurrent thoughts of death or suicide

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3
Q

Trephination

A

boring a hole into the skull to release the demons responsible for abnormal behaviour

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4
Q

Hippocrates

A 
The health of the body and mind depends upon the balance of the four humors / vital fluids
Phlegm
Black bile
Yellow bile 
Blood
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5
Q

biological model of abnormality

A

Genetic predisposition
Neurotransmitters
Brain structure abnormalities

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6
Q

Psychological model of abnormality

A

Unconscious conflicts / repression
Behaviourism (learning theories)
Cognitions / thoughts
Personality traits

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7
Q

social model of abnormality

A

Family
Social group
Society
Culture

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8
Q

Anxiety definition

A

Future-oriented mood state accompanied by strong affect

Free-floating anxiety: anxiety that is unrelated to any realistic and specific known factor

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9
Q

Emotional symptoms of anxiety

A

Restlessness
Irritability
Sense of dread
Terror

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10
Q

Cognitive symptoms of anxiety

A 
Worry
Poor concentration
Anticipating harm
Fear of losing control or dying
Hypervigilance
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11
Q

Somatic symptoms of anxiety

A 
Increased heart rate
Sweating
Rapid breathing
Muscle tension
Dilated pupils
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12
Q

Behavioural symptoms of anxiety

A 
Freezing up
Escape (flight)
Aggression (fight)
Avoidance 
Decreased appetite
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13
Q

classifying anxiety

A

Out of proportion to the threat posed
A state that the individual constantly finds themselves in
A cause of distress that disrupts normal day-to-day functioning

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14
Q

types of anxiety disorders

A 
Social anxiety disorder
Specific phobia (phobic disorder)
Panic disorder
Generalised anxiety disorder
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
PTSD
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15
Q

Social Anxiety Disorder

A

Fear or anxiety about social situations in which the individual is exposed to possible scrutiny by others
The person fears negative evaluation
Social situations almost always provoke fear or anxiety
Social situations are avoided or endured with intense fear or anxiety
Fear/anxiety/avoidance is persistent (> 6 months)
Causes significant distress or impairs functioning

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16
Q

most frequent social triggers

A

Initiating conversation

Taking part in small groups

Dating

Interacting with authority figures

Attending parties

Public speaking

Eating or drinking in public

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17
Q

specific Phobias

A

Fear or anxiety about a specific object or situation (e.g. flying, heights, animals, injections, seeing blood)
Phobic object or situation almost always provokes immediate fear or anxiety
The phobic object is avoided or endured with intense anxiety
The fear or anxiety is out of proportion to actual danger posed
The fear/anxiety/avoidance is persistent (> 6 months)
Causes significant distress or impairs functioning

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18
Q

Panic disorder

A

Recurrent unexpected panic attacks
Four panic attack symptoms e.g. heart palpitations, sweating, shaking, shortness of breath, chest pain, nausea, dizziness, fear of losing control, fear of dying
One month of persistent worry about additional panic attacks or their consequences and/or a significant maladaptive change in behavior related to the attacks e.g. avoidance of situations where the panic attack occurs

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19
Q

Generalised Anxiety Disorder

A

Excessive anxiety and worry, occurring most days, about several events or activities for at least 6 months
The individual finds it difficult to control the worry
Three (or more) of the following symptoms:
Restlessness or being on edge
Easily fatigued
Difficulty concentrating
Irritability
Muscle tension
Sleep disturbance
Symptoms cause significant distress or impairment

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20
Q

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

Obsessions:

A

Presence of obsessions, compulsions, or both

Recurrent and persistent thoughts, urges, or images that are intrusive and unwanted and cause anxiety or distress
The individual attempts to ignore or suppress such thoughts, urges, or images, or to neutralise them with some other thought or action (a compulsion)

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21
Q

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

Compulsions

A

Repetitive behaviours (e.g. hand washing, checking) or mental acts (counting, repeating words silently) that the individual feels driven to perform in response to an obsession
The behaviours or mental acts aim to prevent or reduce anxiety, distress or a dreaded event or situation
The obsessions or compulsions are time-consuming (> 1 hour per day) or cause significant distress or impairment

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22
Q

Aetiology of Anxiety Disorders

biological explanation

A

Genetic predisposition
Imbalances in the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin
Amygdala – more active; excessive conditioning and exaggerated responses to stimuli

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23
Q

Aetiology of Anxiety Disorders

Behavioural explanations

A

Anxious behavioural responses are learned
Classical conditioning – pairing of an object or situation with a fear-producing stimulus (origin of the disorder)
Operant conditioning – avoidance behaviours are negatively reinforced (maintains the disorder)
Observational learning

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24
Q

Aetiology of Anxiety Disorders

Cognitive explanations

A

Anxiety disorders are caused by illogical, irrational thought processes
Cognitive distortions – magnification, minimisation, overgeneralisation, all-or-nothing thinking
Social anxiety disorder – negative beliefs and cognitive biases by which social situations and the self are evaluated
Panic disorder – paying close attention to physical sensations, negative interpretation of physical sensations and catastrophic thinking

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25
Q

Aetiology of Anxiety Disorders

Social Factors

A 
Environmental factors (in South Africa) may lead to high levels of anxiety 
Feelings of exclusion
High crime rates
High unemployment
Economic instability
26
Q

Normal Sadness

A

Context-specific response
Proportionate to the situation
Recedes once the situation changes

27
Q

Depression

A

Pervasive and persistent
Impairs functioning
May occur in the absence of precipitating events
May be out of proportion to circumstances
‘Feel strange’ or difficult to describe

28
Q

Manic Episode definition

A

An elevated, expansive, or irritable mood and increased goal-directed activity or energy
Lasting at least one week
Impairment or hospitalisation or psychotic features
Three (or more) symptoms are present and represent a noticeable change from usual behaviour

29
Q

Manic Episode symptoms

A

Inflated self-esteem or grandiosity
Decreased need for sleep
More talkative than usual or pressure to keep talking
Flight of ideas or feels like thoughts are racing
Distractibility
Increased goal-directed activity or psychomotor agitation
Excessive involvement in activities that have a high potential for painful consequences

30
Q

Hypomanic Episode

A

3 or more symptoms
Same symptoms as for a manic episode BUT
Lasting at least 4 days
Not severe enough to cause impairment in functioning or hospitalisation.

31
Q

Bipolar I Disorder

A

Person meets the criteria for at least one manic episode
The manic episode may be preceded or followed by major depressive episodes
Causes marked impairment in functioning or hospitalisation or psychotic features

32
Q

Bipolar II Disorder

A

Person meets the criteria for a current or past hypomanic episode and a current or past major depressive episode
Person has never met the criteria for a manic episode
Not severe enough to cause impairment in functioning or hospitalisation
Depressive episode causes distress or impairment

33
Q

Aetiology of Depression – Biological

A 
Genetic predisposition – 30% to 40% concordance rates
Brain abnormalities
Hippocampus:
Deficits in hippocampus function
Dissociates affective response from context
Sadness occurs independently of context
Amygdala
Increased activation
Attention to stimuli
Prioritise threatening information
Interpret it negatively
34
Q

Aetiology of Depression – Behavioural

A

Seligman’s Learned Helplessness Theory

Uncontrollable negative life events -> Perceived lack of control -> Generalised helpless behaviour

35
Q

Aetiology of Depression - Social

A 
Gender differences – higher prevalence rates of depression in women (up to 3 times higher)
Hormonal structure
Emotional display rules
Social roles 
Oppression
Exposure to trauma
36
Q

Anorexia Nervosa

A

Restriction of energy intake relative to requirements, leading toasignificantly lowbody weight (BMI < 17)
Intense fear of gaining weight or persistent behavior that interferes with weight gain
Disturbance in the way in which one’s body weight or shape is experienced
Undue influence of body weight or shape on self-evaluation, or persistent lack of recognition of the seriousness of the current low body weight
Restricting type: dieting, fasting or excessive exercise
Binge-eating/purging type: binge-eating and purging

37
Q

Anorexia Nervosa severity

A

Mild: BMI ≥ 17 kg/m2
Moderate: BMI 16–16.99 kg/m2
Severe: BMI 15–15.99 kg/m2
Extreme: BMI < 15 kg/m2

38
Q

Anorexia Nervosa medical complications

A 
Abnormal hormonal secretion (thyroid and adrenal glands)
Weak heart muscles or altered heart rhythms
Diarrhoea
Loss of muscle tissue 
Difficulty sleeping
Low blood sugar
Amenorrhea (menstruation stops)
Dry, cracked skin
Lanugo (fine, downy hair)
39
Q

Bulimia Nervosa

A

Recurrent episodes of binge eating which is:
Eating a large amount of food within two hours
Lack of control over eating during the episode
Inappropriate compensatory behaviors to prevent weight gain (vomiting, laxatives, fasting, excessive exercise)
Self-evaluation is unduly influenced by body shape and weight
Binge-eating and purging occurs least once a week for 3 months

40
Q

Bulimia Nervosa medical complications

A 
Tooth decay
Erosion of the lining of the oesophagus
Enlarged salivary glands (puffy face)
Imbalances in sodium, calcium and potassium 
Heart problems
Fatigue
Seizures 
Rupture of the stomach
41
Q

Binge-Eating Disorder diagnosis

A

Recurrent episodes of binge eating which is:
Eating a large amount of food within two hours
Lack of control over eating during the episode
At least three of the following symptoms
Eating much faster than normal
Eating until feeling uncomfortably full
Eating large amounts when not hungry
Eating alone due to embarrassment
Feeling disgusted, depressed or guilty afterwards

42
Q

Aetiology of Eating Disorders biological explanations

A

Genetic predisposition – 40% to 60% concordance rates
Low levels of serotonin
Diminished endocrine functioning

43
Q

Aetiology of anorexia psychological explanations

A 
Perfectionism 
Shyness 
Depression
Low Self-Esteem
Negative Body Image
Dietary Restraint
44
Q

Aetiology of Bulimia and Binge-Eating disorder psychological explanations

A 
1. Preoccupation with food
Uncontrollable hunger
2. Binge-Eating
3. Disappointment
Self-criticism
Sense of loss of control
Guilt and shame
Body dissatisfaction
Social anxiety
4. Efforts to Control Diet
45
Q

Aetiology of Eating Disorders Social factors (Anorexia Nervosa and family dynamics)

A

May be linked to troubled family relationships
Struggle for control
Desperate sense of having no control
Family members may be too close (enmeshed) and overly involved in each other’s lives
Enmeshment Hypothesis - the only thing the person can control in their intrusive families is their eating (Minuchin et al., 1978)

46
Q

Aetiology of Eating Disorders Social factors – Standards of Beauty

A

Changing standards of beauty may explain surge in eating disorders
BMI of women on magazine covers decreased dramatically over time
Media exposure to images of super-thin women increases body dissatisfaction in girls and young women
May explain the large variation in prevalence between men and women
Women - thinness is essential to good looks
Young men – pressure to be strong and muscular
Dolls and action figures

47
Q

Schizophrenia

A

A long-lasting psychotic disorder, in which there is an inability to distinguish what is real from what is not real
Disturbances in thinking, emotions, behaviour and perception
Usually arises in late teens or early twenties

48
Q

Schizophrenia – DSM-5 criteria

A

Two (or more) of the following, each present for a significant portion of time during a 1-month period (or less if successfully treated). At least one of these must be (1), (2), or (3):
Delusions
Hallucinations
Disorganised speech (e.g., frequent derailment or incoherence)
Grossly disorganised or catatonic behavior
Negative symptoms (i.e., diminished emotional expression or avolition)

49
Q

The nature of psychotic symptoms - Schizophrenia

A

Positive symptoms – excess of normal functions
Delusions
Hallucinations

Negative symptoms – decrease in normal functions
Poor attention
Flat affect
Poor speech production
Avolition (decrease in goal-directed activities)
Catatonia (lack of movement)

50
Q

Delusions

A

False beliefs the person has about the world
Remain fixed even in the face of evidence that disproves them
Persecution
reference
influence
grandeur

51
Q

persecution

A

Other people are trying to hurt them

52
Q

Reference

A

Others (people, characters in a book/TV) are talking to them specifically

53
Q

influence

A

They are being controlled by external forces

54
Q

grandeur

A

Convinced that they are powerful and have a special mission

55
Q

Hallucinations

A

Sensory perceptions experienced in the absence of external stimuli that get confused with reality
auditory hallucinations = most common

56
Q

Disorganised thinking (speech)

A

Difficulty linking and expressing thoughts in a logical way
Word salad – jumbled mixture of words and phrases
Clanging – stringing words together on basis of sounds

57
Q

Emotional disturbances

schitzophrenia

A

Flat affect – the person shows little or no emotion
Excessive emotion
Inappropriate emotion

58
Q

Aetiology of Schizophrenia biological

A

– Dopamine Hypothesis
Excessive activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine
Antipsychotic drugs that alleviate psychotic symptoms block the brain’s dopamine receptor sites
Amphetamine psychosis resembles psychosis and is related to excess dopamine
MRI scans and post-mortem studies suggest sufferers exhibit more dopamine receptors in the brain

59
Q

Aetiology of Schizophrenia Biological explanations – brain structure

A

Smaller brain size
Enlarged ventricles, reduction in cortical grey matter
Less myelin coating on the cingulum bundle (linking the frontal lobe and temporal lobe)

60
Q

Aetiology of Schizophrenia Environmental factors influencing brain development

A

Viral infections during pregnancy

Birth complications

61
Q

Aetiology of Schizophrenia Psychological explanations – cognitive biases

A

Attentional biases – prioritising threatening information and information related to the delusions
Attributional biases – attributing negative life events to external causes
Reasoning bias – jumping to conclusions about the meaning of events in the absence of evidence
Interpretational bias – interpreting cognitive intrusions (e.g. hallucinations) in a negative way

62
Q

Aetiology of Schizophrenia Social explanations – Family Factors

A

High levels of expressed emotion (EE)
A pattern of responding to the family member in a hostile, critical, unsupportive way
High EE families tend to have an attributional style that blames the sufferer for his/her condition (Weisman et al., 2000)
EE is a robust predictor of relapse (Kavanagh, 1992)
Interventions to moderate EE in a family can have beneficial effects on symptoms (Hogarty et al., 1986)

Psychology (8 decks)

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