Psych glossary Flashcards
accommodation
changing schemas to include new experiences and information that cannot fit into existing schemas
active listening
active involvement by the listener in the conversation,
shown to the speaker by nodding, responding, asking questions etc.
altruistic behavior
doing something for someone else without any expectation of reward
anti-social behavior
voluntary, intentional behavior designed to hurt or cause distress to another person, physically or psychologically
assertive communication
the honest expression of opinions and feelings in a way that does not disregard (infringe on) the rights of others
assimilation
a process by which individuals include new experiences and information in their current schemas
association areas
all areas of the cortex that do not have specific motor or sensory functions but integrate information from other brain structures
attitude formation
the development of attitudes through experience and observing others
attitudes
long-lasting evaluations we hold about ourselves, other people, objects and issues that involve affect (emotions), cognition (thoughts) and behavior
average
normal, most representative
n.b. this is not a maths definition!!
axon
part of the nerve cell that transmits information from the cell body to other neurons or to cells in glands and muscles.
bar graph
a graph for discrete (not continuous) variables.
the bars do not touch each other
barrier to effective listening
a behavior that stops a message from being received as intended.
bell curve
normal distribution
a bell-shaped graph that is representative of the distribution of values, probabilities and frequencies of a set of data
bilingualism
the teaching and learning of two languages separately.
Deaf - gesture and spoken
body language
communication using bodily movement, posture (how you are sitting/standing) and facial expression
brainstorming
group problem solving in which members are encouraged to be uninhibited in generating ideas.
bullying
behavior intended to harm the recipient (e.g. hitting. offensive gestures, intimidation, verbal insults).
bystander effect
the tendency for a person who is present in an emergency to be less likely to try to help if other people are present
cardinal traits
basic building blocks for personality development
case study
an intensive study of an individual
cell body
the part of a cell that contains the nucleus; controls the maintenance and metabolic function of the cell
central traits
building blocks of personality more commonly recognized than cardinal traits
cerebellum
part of the hindbrain the receives information from sensory organs, spinal cord and other parts of the brain to regulate posture and balance and coordinate fine movement
posture
how you hold your body
cerebral cortex
the outer layer of the forebrain. It has two halves or hemispheres.
cerebrum
comprises most of the forebrain; it is located above and in front of the cerebellum
clinical neuropsychology
an area of psychology concerned with how brain injuries or illnesses affect a person’s thinking, emotions and behavior.
clinical psychology
an area of psychology concerned with the assessment and treatment of mental disorders and psychological problems in adults and children
cognition
thinking and reasoning
cognitive development
changes in abilities, such as thinking and reasoning, memory, attention, imagination and language.
cohort
a group of people who have some aspect of their lives such as age, in common
collectivist culture
a culture in which priority is given to the needs and goals of the group rather than the individual.
common traits
traits that are common within a culture
communication
when a message is sent by one person and received by another
community psychology
an area of psychology concerned with helping improve the wellbeing of people who are members of communities.
competitiveness
rivalry and the desire to win
CAT Computed Axial Tomography
a type of X ray that provides cross sectional pictures of the brain.
conductive hearing loss
a form of hearing impairment resulting from problems in the middle or outer ear
consciousness
awareness of the existence of ourselves and of objects and events in the world.
construct
a hypothetical concept that is created to explain a phenomenon that is believed to exist but cannot be directly observed or measured
control group
the group of participants in an experiment that is not exposed to the independent variable; used to provide a comparison with the experimental group.
controlled variable
a variable that is the SAME for the control and experimental groups throughout an experiment so that the changes observed are the result of the independent variable
convenience sample
a subset of the population that is easily obtainable as participants for a study but which may not be representative of the population.
corpus callosum
a thick band of fibres in the middle of the brain that allows messages to be sent from one hemisphere to the other.
correlation
a statistical term that describes the relationship between two sets of numbers
Co- relate. often both increase/decrease
correlation coefficient
a number describing the strength and direction of a correlation.
e.g. 0.6 = 60% both increase.
cortex
the outer layer of the forebrain; it has two halves or hemispheres
cost-benefit ratio
a calculation of what it will cost to be rewarded by another person; this is thought to determine how much we like the other person.
counselling psychology
an area of psychology concerned with assisting individuals, groups and organizations in areas such as personal wellbeing, relationships, health and crises.
cross-sectional design
a research design comparing groups of people of different ages at one point in time to investigate developmental changes.
culture
the behaviors, beliefs, attitudes and traditions that are shared by a group of people and passed on from one generation to the next.
daydream
a state of consciousness in which we focus on internal thoughts, feelings and activities
defense mechanism
unconscious psychological mechanisms that deny, distort or falsify reality
deindividuation
abandoning usual restraints to join in group behaviour
dendrites
fine branches that stretch from the cell body; they receive incoming information from other neurons and transmit it to the cell body.
dependent variable (DV)
In an experiment, the variable that is measured in response to changes in another variable (IV) that has been manipulated by the experimenter
depressant
a drug that slows the activity of the nervous system and slows bodily functions
descriptive statistics
a means of describing, organizing and summarizing data (information) to assist in interpretation and reporting.
diffusion of responsibility
the assumed reduction in responsibility to provide assistance in an emergency if other people are present
dishabituation
a change in events or activities that causes us to become aware of them
(they are no longer normal!)
disinhibition
the loss of inhibition; leads to some normally placid people becoming aggressive, even when unprovoked
divided attention
attending to and undertaking two different activities simultaneously
double-blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which neither the participants nor the person collecting the data know whether the participants are in the experimental or control group; they are all ‘blind’ to group membership
educational and developmental psychology
an area of psychology concerned with understanding and supporting the development and learning of people throughout their lives
effective communication
when the listener receives, interprets and understands the message as intended by the speaker
ego
in Freud’s theories, the subconscious par of us that acts as the regulator and setter of standards.
(like an adult)
egocentric
inability to see something from another person’s point of view
electroencephalograph EEG
an external recording techinique used to measure brain waves or electrical activity in the brain
emotional development
changes with age in the recognition and expression of emotions (strong feelings)
emotional intelligence EQ
a term made up by Salovey and Mayer 1990.
defined as the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions,
to discriminate among them,
to use this information to guide one’s own thinking and action
empathy
the ability to identify with and understand the feelings of others.
erogenous zones
pleasure-sensitive areas of the body.
evidence
data collected from research studies
experimental methods
methods used to test whether changes in one variable or group of variables have an effect on another variable
experimenter effect
the effect observed when an experimenter’s actions affect how the participants in a research study respond.
most likely to occur if the members of the experimental and control groups are treated differently
extraversion
personality trait defined by being more outgoing, talkative and energetic
facial expression
a form of non-verbal communication using the face; e.g. frowning, smiling
factor analysis
a statistical technique used to determine groupings of variables
fixation
an emotional “hang-up” caused by thepsychosexual issue at a particular stage of development not being resolved satisfactorily.
fixed-response interview
an interview in which participants’ respnses are restricted to a range of alternatives offered bu the interviewer.
focus group
a small group discussion, limited in scope (i.e. has a specific purpose) in which the interviewer asks group members a series of open-ended questions
forebrain
the largest and highly-developed part of the brain
forensic psychology
an area of psychology concerned with applying psychological understanding to the legal and criminal justice systems
forms of address
the terms used to initiate contact with another person
frequency polygon
a type of graph that looks like a line graph but is only used to show the frequency.
frontal lobes
the front part of the brain’s cortex; associated with motor activity and and higher mental ability.
functional magnetic resonance imaging MRI
a technique that measures brain activity by means of oxygen consumption of the neurons
galvanic skin response GSR
changes in the electrical conductivity of the skin
general intelligence
the idea that intelligence is a general ability that shows itself in different ways
generation gap
the social and cultural differences between young people and older adults.
gesture
a form of non-verbal communication involving hand movements but not touch.
e.g. fist closed, thumb up = good
group
collections of individuals who relate to one another in such a way that there is interdependence between them
group norms
unwritten and often unspoken informal rules that govern individual behaviors in a group
habituation
learning not to respond to events or activities that occur repeatedly
hallucinogen
a drug that changes perceptions and gives sensory images without input from from the senses
halo effect
a biased judgement of a person based on one favourable impression.
An example of cognitive bias.
Hawthorne effect
a behavior change in an experiment brought about by participants’ expectations when they know they are involved in a study.
Can lead to incorrect conclusions
health psychology
an area of psychology focusing on understanding processes that are relevant to health and illness and improving health at an individual or societal level.
hemispheres
the two halves of the cerebral cortex that are separated by a deep grove.
hindbrain
part of the brain at the back of the skull that is made up of the medulla and the cerebellum.
histogram
graph of discrete data with the bars touching.
human development
changes in people that begin at conception and continue through the lifespan.
hypnosis
a way of inducing a deep state of relaxation through suggestion; may be used in clinical practice
hypothalamus
part of the brain located just below the thalamus; it regulates the release of hormones.
hypothesis
a tentative prediction of the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable.
id
in Freud’s theories, the primitive, pleasure -maximizing part of the make up of our personality
independent variable (IV)
in an experiment, the variable that is changed by the experimenter to determine its impact on another (dependent) variable.
individualistic culture
a culture in which the needs and goals of the individual have higher priority than those of the group
individuation
seeking information about people as individuals rather than accepting stereotypes about the group to which they may belong.
inferential statistics
mathematical procedures that allows a researcher to draw inferences and conclusions from a set of data.
intelligence quotient IQ
a numerical score on an intelligence test in comparison with other people the same age.
internal consistency
exists when different questions or activities within a test are measuring the same thing.
inter-observer agreement
a means of testing inter-rater reliability through correlation.
agreement between people in the expt.
interpretation
final stage in perception in which the brain interprets information and giving meaning to it.
interview
a technique used to obtain information about people through questions.
introrversion
personality trait defined by being more reserved and solitary.
just-world phenomenon
the widespread belief that the world is just and fair.
liberalism
open-mindedness
Likert scale
a rating scale that measures responses to a series of statements about an issue; each statement presents a positive or negative position with respect to the issue
lobes
areas of the brain that have different functions and are defined by grooves ( or fissures) in the cortex.
longitudinal research
research that follows the development of one group of people over time to make claims about development changes.
magnetic resonance imaging MRI
a technique used to produce a 3D or cross sectional image of the brain
mean
the average score
mean deviation
a measure of central tendency
median
the middle score, if even no of scores, use point midway between the middle two scores.
meditation
a way of deliberately inducing a state of consciousness of very deep relaxation.
medulla
part of the brain that is located at the top of the hindbrain; it controls vital functions such as heart rate and breathing
menopause
major biological change in women (typically between 40 and 50 when menstruation and the ablility to have children naturally ceases.
mental age MA
a term proposed by Binet for use in intelligence testing;
in a properly constructed Intelligence test, a child of average ability would pass the number of items typically passed by children of his/her chronological age and would be said to have an average mental age.
midbrain
a part of the brain that sits on top of the brainstem and under the cerebral hemisphere;
acts as the brain’s sensory switchboard
mixed hearing loss
refers to a combination of conductive hearing loss and sensorineural hearing loss
mode
the most frequent score
myelin sheath
a layer that protects the axom and assists with a speedy transmission of nerve impulses
nature/nuture debate
discussion about how much of human development is caused by what people inherit genetically from their parents (nature) and how much is learned as the result of the environmental influences, both physical and social in the world (nurture)
neuron
type of cell that is specialized to receive, transmit and process information.
neuroticism
emotional instability
neurotransmitter
chemicals that affect the way messages are passed from one neuron to another.
non-experimental methods
research methods, such as interviews and observation, that do not involve manipulation of the independent variable
non-scientific approach
predicting and describing human behavior using non-scientific methods
non-verbal communication
conveying a message without words, through gesture, facial expression and so on.
norm
something that is considered normal (average) for a particular group
normal
used in statistics to represent the distribution of random variables in the form of a bell shaped graph.
observation
the study of people by observing them in natural situations.
occipital lobes
the back part of the cortex, associated with vision and seeing
open-ended interview
an interview in which interviewees can answer questions in any way they want
operationalise
provide a working definition of a variable that will enable it to be measured.
organisation
second stage in perception that involves grouping of selected features of stimuli to form a whole.
organisational psychology
an area of psychology concerned with understanding complex relationships in workplaces so as to improve as organisation’s effectiveness and productivity
parietal lobes
the lobes located on the top of the cortex that are associated with sensory information, such as touch and temperature, as well as about the body’s position in space.
participant
a person who participates in research and provides the data used to test hypothesis.
participant observation
a research strategy that requires the observer to become part of the group they are studying
peer group
a group made up of people who interact on fairly equal terms;
group members have a similar status and age and usually have similar interests.
perception
organising and interpreting what the sense organs take in
perceptual expectancy
a bias or readiness to respond to an event or activity because of expectations or preconceptions
perceptual illusion
a mismatch between physical reality and our perception of it
personality
the characteristic ways of thinking, feeling and acting that make a person an individual
physical appearance
non-verbal communication that involves how you present yourself physically;
the way you dress, do your hair, use make up, etc
physical development
changes with age in size, proportion, appearance, motor skills and coordination
physical distance
a form of non-verbal communication in which a message is transmitted by the proximity to, ot distance from, another person
placebo
a neutral substance or procedure that looks like the real substance or procedure that is being evaluated and is delivered in a similar way.
e.g. sugar tablet
politeness
behavior that is considered courteous and considerate
population
the group of people to whom the findings from a research study apply
positron emission tomography PET scan
a technique to measure brain activity by means of the glucose (sugar) consumption of the brain
prejudice
unjustifiable and usually negative attitudes towards a group and its members
probability
the degree of likelihood of an event happening;
the expected frequency of an event relative to chance
projective test
a personality test that attempts to reveal people’s unconscious desires, motivations and conflicts by asking them to describe what they see in ambiguous stimuli such as inkblots
pro-social behavior
voluntary helping behavior intended to benefit others
psychoanalysis
a technique designed to investigate unconscious motives in the individual
ass with Sigmund Freud
psychosexual stages
in Freud’s theories, the early development of personality during which the id’s energies are focused on distinct pleasure-sensitive (erogenous) areas of the body.
psychoticism
the term used to describe individuals who are unstable and reckless.
puberty
the time of sexual maturation
qualitative data
information that is not expressed in numbers
quantitative data
information that is gathered in the form of numbers
questionnaire
a paper and pencil or online survey used to obtain information about people
racism
a form of prejudice based on assumed racial differences
random sampling
a way of selecting participants for a study that makes sure every member of the study population has an equal change of being selected to participate.
range
the difference between the highest and lowest value in a group of scores.
rating scale
a self-report measure providing a series of questions or statements to which respondents indicate the strength of their opinion;
they provide quantitative data.
re-categorisation
a way in which conflicting groups can be helpful to see similarities and work towards common goals
reception
the first stage of sensation when physical stimuli, such as sound waves and light, are detected by sensory neurons
referential communication task
a communication task involving two people - a speaker and a listener - separated by a barrier such as a screen.
each has a set of objects and the listener must determine the object being spoken about from the speaker’s description.
reliability
the extent to which one would get the same result if the same measure were to be given to the same person again under the same circumstances.
reliable
a measure that is consistent within itself and across time.
reticular formation
a network of nerves that runs through the centre of the brain; its main function is to screen incoming information.
sample
in a study or experiment, a group that is a subject of the population (a large group) being studied for research purposes.
schema
an idea or understanding about what something is and how to deal with it.
science
seeks empirical evidence for any conclusions reached; it requires a scientific attitude and uses scientific methods.
scientific attutide
a questioning approach that involves looking for evidence to back up all conclusions
scientific method
a systematic approach to planning and conducting research;
it starts with developing a testable hypothesis and progresses through data collection and data analysis to drawing conclusions
scientist
professional psychologist who base their practice on research evidence
secondary trait
preferences and attitudes that can change according to a particular situation
secular growth trends
generational changes in growth rate
selection
the first step in perception in which the brain filters stimuli for further processing
selective attention
paying attention to some events and activities (stimuli) while ignoring others
self - actualisation
living up to one’s potential
self-concept
our definition of ourselves, who we consider ourselves to be.
self-fulfilling prophecy
a prediction that directly or indirectly becomes true, by the conditions of the prophecy itself.
self- report
spoken or written answers provided in response to questions asked by a researcher.
self-report inventory
a form of test in which individuals respond to questions about how they think, feel or behave
sensation
the initial step in perception involving filtering stimuli to select important features for further processing
sensorineural hearing loss
a form of hearing loss where there is damage to the cochlea or auditory nerve
single-blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which the person collecting the data knows whether the participants are in the experimental or control group, but the participants do not.
i.e. the participants are ‘blind’ to group membership
sleep
the deepest, most relaxed state of consciousness
smell
a form of non-verbal communication in which a message is transmitted by how an individual smells.
Brought about by cleanliness, perfume etc.
social categorisation
the process of identifying a person as a member of a group because of the features they share.
social comparison
making oneself acceptable to a social group by holding similar attitudes
social conformity
adherence to the attitudes and behaviors of the social group to which the individual belongs.
social desirability bias
people’s tendency to behave in a way they consider socially acceptable, even if this is not how they would normally behave.
social development
changes in self-knowledge and understanding of other people, skills in making and maintaining friendships and reasoning about behavior.
social identity
part of our self-concept that is based on our membership in particular groups
social influence
the impact of others on us that leads us to change our thoughts, feelings or behavior.
social loafing
putting less effort into an activity when in a group than when functioning alone.
social norms
shared rules or expectations of a group about how to behave
social rules
roles taken on by individuals for the benefit of the group;
for each role, a set of social norms or rules determine the expected behavior of the person in that role.
social status
the level of prestige or importance of a person within a group
socially dependent
the reliance of people on each other for emotional outcomes, feelings of belonging and social identity
source traits
fundamental or basic personality traits, determined by factor analysis
specific language impairment SLI
difficulty in speaking or understanding spoken language.
Not due to neurological, intellectual, emotional or sensory impairments.
standard deviation
the square root of the variance, used by psychologists to describe the spread of measures around the mean.
state of consciousness
the level of awareness we have at any time of our internal state and external events
stereotype
a form of social catagorisation based on what others presume to be shared features.
stimulant
a drug that excites the nervous system and arouses the body’s functions
stratified random sampling
a form of stratified sampling in which participants are randomly selected within each stratum
stratified sampling
a way of selecting participants for a study that involves dividing the population into groups or strata.
where each group has a particular characteristic; e.g. males and females
superego
in Freud’s theories, the voice of conscience
task dependent
behavior based on the aim of working together to complete a task successfully
temporal lobes
the lobes located on both sides of the cortex;
they receive auditory information and are responsible for speech, hearing and mental processes.
test-retest reliability
consistency in scores when the same test is given again at a later time
thalamus
a section of the brain that is located near its middle;
it filters information from all senses except smell and acts as a relay system
theory
a system for describing what we know, explaining what we observe and providing testable predictions
theory of reasoned actions
an explanation of how social norms and values are translated into the way people behave
total communication
a system of communication used by some in the deaf community;
it involves the use of formal signs, such as Auslan and fingerspelling alongside spoken language
touch
physical contact as a form of communication
trait
a stable form of behavior displayed in any way and every situation
transduction
second step in sensation that involves different forms of energy being converted into electrochemical energy for the human nervous system to process
transmission
the third step in sensation involving the transfer of electrochemical energy to the brain for processing
two-factor theory of intelligence
a theory of intelligence that states that intelligence is made up of a general factor ‘g’ that affects performance on all intellectual tasks, and specific factors ‘s’ that affect performance in specific areas of functioning
uncontrolled variable
a variable that is allowed to stay random because it is predicted to have no effect on the outcome of an experiment but could potentially impact the dependent variable.
valid
the extent to which the results of a study reflect what the measuring instrument says it is measuring
variable
a factor that can vary (change) in some way e.g. amount.
