psych chapter 2 Flashcards
scientific knowledge is empirical because -
it is grounded in objective tangible evidence that can be observed time & time again, regardless of who is observing.
Mary Whiton Calkins
preeminent first-generation psychologist opposed the behavioral movement, conducted research into memory, established experimental psych labs in the US, first female president of the APA
Horatio Pinero
founded first experimental psych labs in South Africa & two in Buenos Aires, Argentia
Gunamudian David Boaz & Narendra Nath Sen Gupta
established first independent departments of psych at University of Madras & Calcutta
deductive reasoning
ideas are tested in the real world; begins with a hypothesis (empirically tested) used to reach logical conclusions about the real world
inductive reasoning
real-world observations lead to new ideas; empirical observations construct broad generalizations, formulating theories that turn into hypotheses
theory
a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena (repeatedly checked)
hypothesis
a testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct (if-then statement), specific ideas so the theory can be modified
James-Lange theory
of emotion asserts that emotional experience relies on the physiological arousal associated with the emotional state
falsifiable
capable of being shown to be incorrect, scientist’s dependence on this = great confidence
Krista & Tatiana Hogan
Candian conjoined twins, brain connected through the thalamus (major sensory relay center), information passes through before reaching the cerebral cortex for processing. This means there is a potential connection for one twin to experience the sensations of the other.
clinical/case studies
when they focus on one person or just a few individuals
generalizing
refers to the ability to apply the findings of a particular research project to larger segments of society
naturalistic observation
observing behavior in its natural setting
Suzanne Fanger
Observed the behavior of preschool children on a playground to better understand peer exclusion.
Jane Goodall
Anthropologists observed the behaviors of chimpanzees and received criticism due to naming the chimps.
structured observation
observed while engaging in set/specific tasks
Mary Ainsworth
The strange situation is used to evaluate attachment styles that exist between an infant and caregiver.
observer bias
people who act as observers are closely involved in the project and can unconsciously skew the observations to fit the goals or expectations
inter-rater reliability
a measure of reliability that assesses the consistency of observations by different observers
surveys
lists of questions to be answered by research participants, and can be delivered as paper and pencil questionaries
sample
a subset of individuals selected from a population
populations
the overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in
mode
most frequently occurring response
median
lies at the middle of a data set
mean
arithmetic average of all data points (most useful)
archival research
using records and parts research to look for interesting patterns or relationships
longitudinal research
research design in which data-gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time (same groups of people over time)
cross-sectional research
the research compares multiple segments of the population at the same time (different generations of people)
attrition
reduction in the number of research participants due to dropouts
correlation
there is a relationship between two or more variables, but this relationship does not necessarily imply cause and effect
correlation coefficient
a number from -1 to +1 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between variables (represented by the letter r)
positive correlation
the variables move in the same direction
negative correlation
the variables move in opposite directions
confounding variable
actually causing the systemic movement in our variables of intrest
illusory correlations
false correlations, occur when people believe that relationships exist between 2 things when no such relation exists
confirmation bias
looks for evidence to support a hunch, while ignoring evidence that tells the hunch is false
operational definition
a precise description of out variables and it is important in allowing others to understand exactly how and what a researcher measures in a particular experiment
experimenter bias
the possibility that a researcher’s expectations might skew the results of the study
single-blind study
one of the groups (participants) is unaware as to which group they are in (experimental or control) while the researcher who developed the experiment knows which participants are in each group
double-blind study
both researchers and participants are blind to group assignments
placebo effect
occurs when people’s expectations influence their experience in a given situation
independent variable
manipulated or controlled by the experimenter
dependant variable
measurement of effect the independent variable had
participants
subjects of psychological research that actively participate in the process
random sample
subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
random assignment
all participants have equal chance of being assigned to either group
statistical analysis
determines how likely any difference found is due to chance
peer-reviewed journal articles
aimed at an audience of professionals and scholars who are actively involved in research themselves
replicate
repeat the experiment using different samples to determine reliability
reliability
the ability to consistently produce a given result
validity
the extent to which a given instrument or tool accurately measures what it’s supposed to measure
institutional review board (IRB)
committee of individuals often made up of members of the institution’s administration, scientists and community members
informed consent
provides a written description of what participants can expect during the experiment, including potential risks and implications of the research
deception
purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment, never to the point of harmfulness
debriefing
complete, honest information about the purpose of the experiment, how te data will be used, why deception was necessary, how to obtain more information about the study
institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC)
institutional administrators, scientists, veterinarians and community members
