PSYCH 4644: FINAL REVIEW Flashcards

Question

Autocrine

Answer 1

Pertaining to a signal secreted by a cell into the environment that affects the transmitting cell. Autocrine signaling is a form of cell signaling in which a cell secretes a hormone or chemical messenger (called the autocrine agent) that binds to autocrine receptors on that same cell, leading to changes in itself.

Answer 2

Paracrine signaling is a form of cell-cell communication in which a cell produces a signal to induce changes in nearby cells, altering the behavior or differentiation of those cells.

Answer 3

Hypothalamus Pineal Gland Pituitary Gland Thyroid Gland Adrenal Glands Pancreas (Islets of Langerhans) Gonads

Answer 4

Part of the diencephalon, located just below the thalamus. Important in the regulation of autonomic & endocrine functions. The hypothalamus consists of several collections of nerve cell bodies (i.e., nuclei), Regulates endocrine function by releasing neurohormones into the hypothalamic–pituitary portal system and by releasing hormones into the circulation of the posterior pituitary gland. In the Hypothalamus' median eminence, specialized neurons called neurosecretory cells secrete neurohormone (hormones released from a neuron) into the blood vessels of the pituitary

Answer 5

An endocrine gland (also called the epiphysis), located in between the telencephalon and diencephalon Secretes melatonin, a hormone important inthe regulation of daily and seasonal cycles.

Answer 6

Front part of the endocrine gland. Extends from the base of the brain. Secretes a number of TROPIC hormones in response to hormonal signals from the HYPOTHALAMUS. Receives little, if any neural input Neurohormones from the hypothalamus reach the anterior pituitary via the PORTAL BLOOD SYSTEM Causes release of tropic hormones that stimulate various physiological processes either by acting directly on target cells or by causing other endocrine glands to release hormones.

Answer 7

Tropic hormones are hormones that have other endocrine glands as their target. Most tropic hormones are produced and secreted by the anterior pituitary.

Answer 8

The rear part of the endocrine gland that extends from the base of the brain. Stores & releases OXYTOCIN and VASOPRESSIN (or some variant of these nonapeptide hormones) which are produced in the hypothalamus. Hormones are secreted directly from neurons into the blood

Answer 9

A double-lobed endocrine gland located on or near the trachea or esophagus in vertebrates. Secretes several hormones important in metabolism, including triiodothyronine and thyroxine.

Answer 10

Paired, dual-compartment endocrine glands in vertebrates consisting of a medulla and a cortex. Epinephrine & Norepinephrine are secreted from the medulla. Steroid hormones are released from the cortex.

Answer 11

The inner portion of the endocrine organ that sits above the kidneys. Secretes Epinephrine & Norepinephrine.

Answer 12

The outer layer(s) of the endocrine organ that sits above the kidney. Secretes steroid hormones.

Answer 13

A compositevertebrate gland with both endocrine and exocrine functions. The pancreas is located within the curve of the duodenum behind the stomach & liver Secretes digestive enzymes (exocrine function). Secretes insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin (endocrine function). Also secretes bicarbonate.

Answer 14

Islands of endocrine tissue nested throughout the exocrine tissue of the pancreas. There are 4 different cell types among the islets of Langerhans, each of which secretes a different type of protein hormone.

Answer 15

Fat soluble (i.e. can easily move through cell membranes) NOT soluble in water!!! Thus, require carrier proteins for transport through the blood to their target tissue Receptors located inside the cells (cytosol or nucleus) Have slow but lasting effects Carrier protein example: Sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) A class of structurally related fat-soluble chemicals that are derived from cholesterol. Characterized by three 6-carbon rings plus one conjugated 5-carbon ring.

Answer 16

Steroid hormones can be grouped into 5 groups by the receptors to which they bind: ``` Glucocorticoids Mineralocorticoids Androgens Estrogens Progestogens ``` Vitamin D derivatives are a 6th closely related hormone system with homologous receptors.

Answer 17

Made up of individual amino acids: Peptide (small) Protein/polypeptide (large) Stored in vesicles of endocrine cells Released into circulation by exocytosis Soluble in blood!!!s Don't require carrier proteins. Act rapidly (i.e. seconds to minutes) Can vary in their sequence of amino acids

Answer 18

Neurohormones of the Hypothalamus Tropic Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary Posterior pituitary hormones Parathyroid hormone Calcitonin Gastrointestinal hormones Ghrelin & Leptin Pancreatic hormones

Answer 19

The most common form of hormone regulation is NEGATIVE FEEDBACK NEGATIVE FEEDBACK: The product of the target tissue feeds back on the source of the hormone to stop hormone production. POSITIVE FEEDBACK: The production of hormone stimulates additional hormone production.

Answer 20

the process of becoming a male or female

Answer 21

1. Chromosomal sex 2. Gonadal sex 3. Hormonal sex 4. Morphological sex 5. Behavioral sex

Answer 22

Female: XX, homogametic Male: XY, heterogametic

Answer 23

Females: ovaries, eggs Males: testes, sperm Related to gametic sex.

Answer 24

Female: high estrogen, low androgen Male: high androgen, low estrogen

Answer 25

differences in body type, CNS, and effector organs (i.e., muscles)

Answer 26

discriminated on the basis of male and female typical behaviors

Answer 27

!!!!!!!!!!

Answer 28

Behavioral sex differences result from: 1. Differential exposure to hormones that act early in development to organize neural circuitry underlying sexually dimorphic behaviors 2. Differential exposure to sex steroid hormones later in life that activate the neural circuitry previously organized

Answer 29

Occurs before the brain matures Critical period Relatively permanent

Answer 30

Adulthood No sensitive period Transitory (not permanent)

Answer 31

Estradiol decreases apoptoses in the SDN Estradiol increases apoptoses in the AVPv

Answer 32

Spatial tasks Aim

Answer 33

Verbal tasks Noticing minute details and differences

Answer 34

Divided into 2 phases: Appetitive: courtship Consummatory: copulatory behavior “Males expend much more time & energy seeking copulation than actually copulating” …

Answer 35

Hypothesis: Animals with high sex drive had higher Testosterone levels than animals with low sex drive Individual differences in sexual behavior are NOT determined by individual differences in androgen levels

Answer 36

Maintenance: given Testosterone immediately after castration Restoration: Testosterone treatment began after all sexual behaviors stopped Amount of Testosterone necessary to restore full sexual behavior in castrated males is greater if the treatment begins after all sexual behavior stops than if it begins immediately after castration Restoration regimen requires higher doses because androgen receptors decrease in number if not maintained by circulating androgens. Musculature atrophies too.

Answer 37

Lesions of the MPOA abolishes sexual behavior, but sexual motivation is unaffected**** Electrical stimulation of the MPOA accelerates ejaculation Autradiographic studies have shown that the MPOA contains androgen & estrogen receptors Using in situ hybridization, aromatase mRNA has been detected in the MPOA Implants of Testosterone into the MPOA of castrated males facilitates sexual behavior, but not if given with an aromatase inhibitor Activated by copulatory stimuli as detected by the immediate early gene Fos******

Answer 38

Major effect of POA lesions: Destroying connections to dopaminergic neurons in PAG and VTA. Dopamine (DA) agonists can provide some restoration. In intact rats, Dopamine agonists facilitate mating behavior, whereas antagonists suppress mating. Microdialysis studies show that extracellular Dopamine in MPOA increases in response to cues from an estrous female

Answer 39

Will seek out males, initiate copulation and prefer to remain in close proximity to males Are very attractive to males Males prefer to mount Are receptive and will permit mating to occur

Answer 40

Will NOT seek out males, initiate copulation, or remain in close proximity to males Are not attractive to males Males are unlikely to mount Are NOT receptive and will NOT permit mating to occur

Answer 41

Estrous cycle: Cycle between mating and non-mating conditions in female (4-5 days in rats) 4 stages: Diestrus 1, Diestrus 2, Proestrus (behavioral estrus), Estrus Mating behavior coupled in time with ovulation Estrogen & progesterone: Ovulation . Affect the brain to influence the female’s behavior and induce receptivity

Answer 42

"behavioral estrus" Ovulation occurs Estrogen & Progesterone peak at their HIGHEST. Progesterone increases more steeply, dramatically in this stage than Estrogen.

Answer 43

Occurs after ovulation, after pro-estrus. Marked by fallen levels of Estrogen & Progesterone

Answer 44

Female Appetitive phase Reflects underlying motivational state Sexually solicitous behavior that initiates sexual union, but is not copulatory behavior per se: E.g. hopping & darting, ear wiggling in rats; solicitations in non-human primates High concentrations of Estrogen facilitate proceptive behavior

Answer 45

ACTIVATIONAL

Answer 46

Female Consummatory phase Those female reactions that are necessary & sufficient for fertile copulation with a male Indicated by a species-specific mating posture in all nonhuman primates, e.g. lordosis in rodents ESTROGEN is important in receptivity Female primates are able to copulate at all stages of their ovarian cycles Suggests that hormones do not influence female receptivity But…hormones do play a role in receptivity under certain social conditions

Answer 47

Lesions of the VMN abolishes lordosis Electrical stimulation of the VMN induces lordosis Destruction of afferent & efferent fibers reduces the frequency of lordosis

Answer 48

Estrogen implanted into VMN induces receptivity Estrogen increases the production of Progesterone receptors (PR) If Estrogen primed rats receive infusion of Progesterone Receptor antisense oligonucleotides into VMN (i.e., block production of PR) then lordosis can’t be elicited

Answer 49

Some studies have shown that sexual interest peaks around the time of ovulation. Although the ABILITY to copulate is not linked to hormones in humans, the MOTIVATION to copulate appears to be linked to androgens, not estrogens: Blood concentrations of androgens fluctuate during the menstrual cycle peaking mid-cycle when sexual interest peaks Plasma Testosterone levels in women positively correlated with sexual desire Treatment with low doses of androgens can increase libido in postmenopausal women Both testosterone & estradiol levels in females are positively correlated with self-reported orgasms

Answer 50

How do hormones promote maternal behavior? ??? Think APPROACH vs. AVOIDANCE

Answer 51

Depends on somatosensory /tactile feedback that a dam receives from the pups Anesthetizing/severing the nerves that innervate the mouth ----> nest building, licking, and pup retrieval are reduced or abolished Anesthetizing/removing the mother’s nipples ---> failure to nurse pups

Answer 52

Maternal behaviour has several elements: nest-building, gathering the young, nursing, cleaning, protecting, and non-aggression towards the young. Different, but interconnected, neural networks are responsible for each element. The medial preoptic area (mPOA) has a central role in the regulation of these maternal behaviors. Hormone priming of the mPOA is mediated by estrogen, progesterone, prolactin, and oxytocin. Receptors for these hormones are upregulated. Oxytocin is released in the brain during child birth and acts on oxytocin receptors in the mPOA, nucleus accumbens (NAcc), ventral tegmental area (VTA), paraventricular nucleus (PVN), olfactory bulbs, lateral septum (LS), and amygdala. This leads to the rapid initiation of maternal behaviour. The aversion to pup odour that is evident in non-pregnant and early-to-mid-pregnant rats is mediated by olfactory bulb projections to the cortical (CoA) and medial (MeA) amygdala, and then to the anterior hypothalamus (AH) and periaqueductal grey (PAG). Activation of the hormonally primed mPOA and the adjacent vBNST on the one hand overrides aversive responses to newborn odor, and on the other hand activates the meso-limbic dopaminergic reward circuitry (VTA and NAcc). The withdrawal at birth of inhibitory mechanisms, in particular in the mPOA, also facilitates maternal behavior.

Answer 53

mPOA sends Glutamate to the lactation circuit of new moms

Answer 54

Lesions of MPOA disrupt maternal behavior Increased neural activity as measured by c-fos in the MPOA of dams Has receptors for Estrogen, Prolactin, and Oxytocin which increase in number during pregnancy In virgin females, infusion of these hormones into the mPOA will induce maternal care In postpartum females, blocking receptors for these hormones in the MPOA will disrupt maternal behavior

Answer 55

High estrogens & progesterone throughout pregnancy (different than rodents) Prolactin increases during pregnancy (stimulates mammary glands to produce milk) Oxytocin increases at birth (smooth muscle contractions during labor) Increases in ACTH & cortisol throughout gestation (to suppress immune reaction of the mother toward the fetus)

Answer 56

Oxytocin increases positive interactions (gaze, vocalizations, positive affect, and affectionate touch) as assessed during a 15 min mother-infant interaction

Answer 57

Handgrip force reaction to infant crying reduced in nulliparous women given intranasal Oxytocin suggesting that Oxytocin may inhibit parental hostility

Answer 58

Increased Oxytocin levels are associated with greater parental care and more infant touch in fathers Increased Prolactin in fathers prior to birth and in men who respond physiologically to the sounds of babies crying Decreased Testosterone & Cortisol also linked to paternal care: Saliva samples from first time father recruited from prenatal classes compared to controls – general population, matched for age, time of day, season

Answer 59

Found overlapping areas of brain activation including the Putamen, Caudate Nucleus, and the Medial Insular and Anterior Cingulate Cortex. This emphasizes the fact that affiliative behaviors evolved from parental behaviors. Interestingly, brain regions that showed the most activation either are part of the brain’s reward circuitry (mesolimbic and NA) or contain a high density of Oxytocin receptors and Vasopressin Receptors.

Answer 60

Using autoradiography the Oxytocin receptors of monogamous and polygamous voles have been characterized. Species difference also true for vasopressin V1aR too Prairie Voles are associated with long-term Pair Bonds

Answer 61

There are strong correlations among blood Testosterone concentrations and testis size, sperm counts, and social systems (monogamy vs polygamy) These lower levels of Testosterone could possibly indirectly mediate approach behaviors that are needed in order to care for the offspring. Hormones that evoke affiliation thus serve as a means of bringing about this cooperation. This does not mean that if you give supplemental Testosterone to a monogamous vole that it is going to go out and become promiscuous just as castration of a polygamous vole will not make it monogamous.

Answer 62

Lower circulating testosterone concentrations Lower sperm numbers Smaller testes

Answer 63

Higher circulating testosterone concentrations Higher sperm numbers Larger testes

Answer 64

Oxytocin and reward system: Both ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens show greater activation to partner than unfamiliar if Oxytocin given 1st

Answer 65

Hormones that mediate affiliation are similar to the ones that mediate parental behaviors

Answer 66

The underlying mechanisms of affiliation probably evolved from the same neuronal mechanisms that mediate parental behavior

Answer 67

Most hormones associated with affiliation reduce stress or fear of social contact – animals adaptive response – and allows them to come together and engage in social behavior and mating behavior

Answer 68

??????? In large part, organized Aggression is organized perinatally by androgens but also requires the presence of androgens after puberty in order to be fully expressed.

Answer 69

Olfactory cues are processed by the Olfactory Bulb and processed by the Medial Amygdala. Stimulus ultimately ends in the periaquaductal grey (PAG) which promotes species-specific aggression.

Answer 70

Stress can inhibit aggression via inhibitory inputs from the orbital frontal cortex (OFC), the hippocampus, and the paraventricular nucleus (PVN).

Answer 71

Aggression is typically evoked by vocal or visual signals. Activation of the Medial Amygdala results in activation of the BNST and anterior hypothalamus, which in turn activate the PAG for aggressive output.

Answer 72

The orbital frontal cortex (OFC) is important for the interpretation of social cues, and inhibitory inputs from the OFC might inhibit aggression by reducing responsiveness in the amygdala.

Answer 73

Most homeostatic systems operate like a thermostatically controlled heating & cooling system Thermostat (Sensor) acts to keep the room temp within a narrow range around the set point When the temp falls below the set point, furnace is activated to raise temp When the temp rises above set point, the air conditioner is engaged Once temp returns to set point furnace or air conditioner shuts down The deviation from set point must be a few degrees otherwise the system would be continuously engaging and turning off with only minor changes in temp (“set zone”)

Answer 74

Hypovolemic thirst. Bleeding out reduces blood volume.

Answer 75

Osmotic Thirst

Answer 76

Insulin dependent mellitus Autoimmune disorder in which the β cells of the pancreas are destroyed by the immune system, resulting in an insulin deficiency Rapid onset, most common in children and young adults Treatment involves replacement of missing insulin via injection

Answer 77

Tissues develop an insensitivity to insulin Develops slowly in adults over the age of 40, associated with obesity Incidence is rising among younger obese individuals Early stages can be controlled by diet, and insulin treatment isn’t required. But if left uncontrolled, it can cause the pancreas to stop producing insulin, requiring the use of exogenous insulin treatment

Answer 78

Current model focuses on the Arcuate Nucleus, which Has two neuronal circuits with opposite effects: 1. Feeding Stimulatory Circuit (Anabolic) produces 2 orexigenic peptides that stimulate food intake, reduce metabolism, and promote weight gain: NPY (neuropeptide Y) AgRP (agouti related protein) 2. Feeding Inhibitory Circuit (Catabolic) produces two signaling molecules that inhibit food intake, increases metabolism, and promotes weight loss: POMC produces α-MSH CART (cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript)

Answer 79

An appetite stimulant Increases hunger, and therefore enhances food consumption.

Answer 80

Anabolic Produces 2 orexigenic peptides that stimulate food intake, reduce metabolism, and promote weight gain: NPY (neuropeptide Y) AgRP (agouti related protein) Arcuate Nucleus

Answer 81

Catabolic. Produces 2 signaling molecules that inhibit food intake, increases metabolism, and promotes weight loss: POMC produces α-MSH CART (cocaine- & amphetamine-regulated transcript) Arcuate Nucleus

Answer 82

Leptin receptors on arcuate neurons. Turn off feeding stimulatory circuit, turn on feeding inhibitory circuit

Answer 83

Ghrelin is only one of many many signals that regulates hunger & feeding. Ghrelin from stomach activates feeding stimulatory circuit, inhibits feeding inhibitory circuit.

Answer 84

De Marian found in 1800s that tension-relaxation pattern of heliotropic plants persists even if plants isolated from exogenous factors (sun etc.) ENDOGENOUS?

Answer 85

``` Body Temperature. Cortisol Secretion. Sleep & Wakefulness. Growth Hormone. Body Temperature. ```

Answer 86

In the absence of time cues, most circadian cycle period in humans lasts approximately 24.2 to 24.9 hours This length of individual rhythm is called Tau (τ)

Answer 87

Isolation experiments have been key. Constant darkness or dim light studies. Animals maintained in space (away from tides, light/dark cues, etc) maintain a rhythm on their own. E.g., Fiddler crabs, rodents, insects, birds, primates Individual animals reared & maintained in exactly the same conditions show subtle differences in rhythms that persist Period and phase of biological rhythm of one individual can be ‘transferred’ to another by means of a tissue transplant (master biological clock)

Answer 88

the process of resetting the biological clock (or keeping it aligned)

Answer 89

The stimuli that an organism uses to synchronize with the environment. means “time-giver” in German Without a zeitgeber, drift occurs, but still stays close to a 24-hr period.

Answer 90

Suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) A collection of cell bodies in the hypothalamus. Located above the optic chiasm. Contains one or more biological clocks responsible for the temporal organization of many physiological & behavioral parameters.

Answer 91

The SCN electrically more active during light period of cycle, as measured using electrophysiology or autoradiography for glucose usage. This is true in both nocturnal & diurnal species. Individual cells of the SCN show precise changes in activity across circadian cycle The SCN is necessary for endogenous (uncued) circadian rhythms With light cues or other schedules, rhythm can be maintained somewhat In constant dim light, entrained rhythm goes away Suggests cues can mostly overcome trouble with endogenous clock as long as they are available

Answer 92

In constant dim light, entrained rhythm goes away

Answer 93

The RHT consists of retinal ganglion cells that project to the SCN Most of these retinal ganglion cells contain the photopigment melanopsin (blue light) Glutamate is released into SCN when RHT is activated by light Glutamate ‘jump starts’ production of PER & TIM to suppress sleep behavior In other species, such as many birds, the pineal gland is a central clock. The pineal gland is not the master clock in mammals, but it is still important to rhythms.

Answer 94

pineal gland

Answer 95

the hormone of darkness released by pineal gland in response to signals from the SCN (via an indirect pathway involving the sympathetic chain ganglia releasing norepinephrine) Production of melatonin is inhibited by light coming in via RHT. This is true in both diurnal & nocturnal species. Melotonin tells the body it is dark, NOT whether we should be asleep or awake, breeding or not breeding.

Answer 96

Tau + Melatonin curves Different species (and even different individuals) have slightly different cycle lengths (Tau) Night owls vs. larks Individuals pattern of hormone secretion also key. Early morning types have more rapid decline in melatonin levels following nighttime peak.