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Child Development > Chapter 7 > Flashcards

Chapter 7 Flashcards

1
Q

Basic Trust vs. Mistrust

A

Quality of caregiving has significant implications

  • Relieving discomfort
  • Sensitivity
  • Holding the infant gently
  • Patience
  • Weaning at appropriate time
  • Responsiveness
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2
Q

Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt

A

“No. Do it myself!”

Parents must give children guidance and reasonable choices

DO NOT:
• Criticize
• Attack
• Over-control

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3
Q

Emotional Development

A

Emotions play powerful roles in social relationships, exploration of environment, and discovery of self:
• Energize development
• Become more varied & complex with age

In children, FACIAL EXPRESSIONS provide the best indicators of emotion

But they must also attend to other cues

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4
Q

Basic Emotions

A 
Happiness 
Interest
Surprise
Fear
Anger 
Sadness 
Disgust

Universal in humans and other primates

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5
Q

Contingent Caregiving

A

Parents selectively mirror aspects of baby’s emotional behavior

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6
Q

Still-Face Situation

Toda & Fogel, 1993

A

Mothers freeze their face and stop talking to their infant

The infants
• Increase gazing away
• Changes in heart rate
• Decrease in smiling

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7
Q

Happiness

A

Blissful smiles —>
exuberant laughter

New skill = happiness

Early weeks:
• Full
• REM
• Gentle touches & sounds

1-2 months:
• Eye-catching sights
• Parents’ elicit –> social smile

3-4 months:
• Laughter (requires faster processing of info)
• Response to active stimuli

6 months:
• Smile & laugh more often

10 to 12 months:
• Different types of smiles emerge

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8
Q

Anger and Sadness

A 
From birth, distress to a variety of unpleasant experiences:
•  Hunger
•  Pain
•  Changes in body temperature
•  Stimulation

4 to 6 months: anger increases
in intensity
• Caregiver
• Survival

Sadness
• Less common than anger
• Deprivation of loving caregiver

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9
Q

Fear

A

Rises at 6 months of age

Stranger anxiety
• Most frequent; wariness of strangers
• Dependent on temperament, experiences, situation

How do you decrease social anxiety?
• Efe hunters & gatherers: “collective caring system”

Secure Base: point from which to explore
• Approach or Avoidance

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10
Q

Understanding & Responding to Other’s Emotions

A

Why?
Emotional contagion vs. operant conditioning

3 months: infants become sensitive to the structure and
timing of face-to-face interactions; “like me”

4 -5 months: distinguish positive from negative emotion in voices and (soon after) in facial expressions

8 months: Social referencing

18-months recognize what others prefer

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11
Q

Emergence of Self-Conscious Emotions

A

Higher-order set of feelings, including guilt, shame, embarrassment, envy, and pride

Involve injury or enhancement to our sense of self

Appears in the middle of the 2nd year

How do adults help with self-conscious emotions?

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12
Q

Beginning of Emotional Self-Regulation

A

Emotion regulation: strategies used to adjust our emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity so we can accomplish our goals

Requires effortful control: voluntary, effortful management of emotions

Contribute greatly to autonomy and mastery of cognitive and social skills

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13
Q

Effortful Control

A

Improves gradually with the development of the prefrontal cortex
• Young infants rely on caregivers to soothe them
• 4–6 months: ability to shift attention away from unpleasant events and to engage in self-soothing helps infants control emotion

2nd year brings enhanced:
• Communication
• Motor skills
• Attention

Caregivers contribute to child’s self-regulation style

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14
Q

Parental Role

A 
If the parent...
•  Contingent responding
•  Encouragement
•  Emotionally sympathetic
•  Distractions
•  Sensitive parenting
•  Discuss emotions
The child is more likely to...
•  Emotional self-regulation
•  Less fussy, more pleasurable emotions
•  Gender differences
•  More effective anger management
•  Talk more about emotions
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15
Q

Temperament

A

Children vary in their innate dispositions

Temperament = early-appearing, stable individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation

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16
Q

reactivity

A

Quickness and intensity of emotion

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17
Q

self-regulation

A

Strategies that modify reactivity

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18
Q

What the experts say about Temperament…

A

…stable individual differences in the quality & intensity of
emotional reactions. (Goldsmith)

…relatively stable, primarily biologically based individual differences in reactivity & self- regulation. (Rothbart & Derryberry)

…early-emerging, constitutionally based behavioral tendencies that mediate the influence of the environment on the child. (Thomas & Chess)

…a set of inherited personality traits that appear early in life. (Buss & Plomin)

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19
Q

What is Temperament?

A

What do researchers agree upon about temperament?
• individual differences in behavioral functioning
• emerge early
• biologically based
• somewhat stable over time

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20
Q

Dimensions of Temperament

A
  • Mood
  • Approach/Withdrawal
  • Adaptability
  • Intensity
  • Rhythm
  • Persistence
  • Threshold
  • Activity
  • Distractibility
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21
Q

Mood

A
  • predominant quality

* positive or negative

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22
Q

Approach/Withdrawal

A

Response to novelty

Bold vs. Shy

23
Q

Adaptability

A

response to environmental
changes

roll with the punches vs. slow to acclimate

24
Q

Intensity

A

strength of emotional reactions

extreme highs and lows vs. mellow

25
Q

Rhythm

A

regularity of biological cycles

predictable vs. unpredictable

26
Q

Persistence

A

response to challenges and obstacles

gives up vs. keeps at it

27
Q

Threshold

A

sensitivity to stimulation

notice vs. doesn􏰀t notice small changes

28
Q

Activity

A

proportion of time active vs.
inactive

can’􏰀t sit still vs. lethargic

29
Q

Distractibility

A

ability to focus attention

notice every distraction vs. extreme concentration

30
Q

New York Longitudinal Study

A

first major study of temperament

141 participants
(infancy —> adulthood)

parental interviews

31
Q

New York Longitudinal Study

Temperament Types:

A 
Easy (40%)
•  positive mood
•  regular/rhythmic in body functions
•  adaptable
•  reactions mild ---> moderate in intensity
Difficult (10%)
•  negative mood
•  active
•  irregular/arhythmic
•  unadaptable
•  withdraw from novelty
•  very intense emotional reactions
Slow-to-Warm-Up (15%) 
•  􏰁shy􏰂
•  withdraw from novelty
•  slow to adapt
•  reactions mild ---> moderate in intensity 
•  low in activity

Average (remaining 35%)
• not particularly high or low on any dimensions

32
Q

Measuring Temperament

A

parent questionnaires
• 􏰁e.g., Carey􏰀s ITQ; Bates􏰀􏰀ITQ

physiological measures
• 􏰁heart rate, cortisol measures

laboratory/observational measures
• 􏰁look at individual differences in kids􏰀 reactions to staged situations

33
Q

Bates􏰀 Infant Temperament Questionnaire

A

How easy or difficult is it for you to calm your baby when s/he is upset?
1 = very easy… 4 = about average… 7 = difficult

How does your baby typically respond to a new person?
1 = favorably… 4 = sometimes favorably… 7 = negatively

How active is your baby?
1 = calm & quiet… 4 = average… 7 = very active

34
Q

Is Temperament Stable Over Time?

A

modest stability –> debatable
• WHY: Temperament develops with age
• PARENTING

Nature & Nurture
•  􏰀goodness of fit􏰁 
(Thomas & Chess)
•  good 􏰁fit􏰂􏰀 ---> 
positive child outcomes 
•  bad􏰁 fit􏰂 ---> 
negative child outcomes
35
Q

Genetic & Environmental Influences on Temperament

Differential Susceptibility Hypothesis

A

Belsky, 1997a, 1997b, 2005

Children’s varying susceptibility to both adverse and beneficial effects of the environment is attributable to their genetic composition

Toddlers high in negative affectivity are at a heightened risk for adverse developmental outcomes, especially in a poor care-taking environment
• They also might be affected by positive parenting experiences to a higher degree than other children (Belsky, 2005)

No study has examined whether the differential susceptibility hypothesis can be used to explain relationships between coparenting and child adjustment

36
Q

Differential Susceptibility

A

….

37
Q

Differential Susceptibility Experiment

Altenburger et al.

A

Primary Research Questions:

1) Does coparenting predict toddler dysregulation behavior beyond the influence of negative affectivity?
2) Is there support for the differential susceptibility hypothesis, such that infants high in negative affectivity are more susceptible to the effects of coparenting on social-emotional adjustment?

Participants & Procedure:
182 dual-earner male-female couples from the U.S.
•  Married or cohabiting 
•  Dual-earner 
•  Expecting first child 
•  ≥ 18 years of age

Assessed during the 3rd trimester of pregnancy and again at 3, 6, 9 months postpartum AND 27 month follow-up survey
• Focus was on 9 and 27 month postpartum

Regressions testing child negative affectivity as a moderator of the associations between coparenting and child dysregulation

38
Q

Measures – 9 mo

A

Coparenting
• Observations from Mother-Father-Infant episodes adapted from Cowan & Cowan (1996)
Support:
# Pleasure (P, J) 􏰂m = .81, .84; 􏰂f = .86, . 86
# Cooperation (P, J) 􏰂 = .88, .80
Undermining:
# Displeasure (P, J) = 􏰂m = .83, .86; 􏰂f = .91, .86
# Competition (P, J) = 􏰂 = .68, .64

Temperament
• Revised Infant Behavior Questionnaire– Very Short Form (IBQVSF; Rothbart & Garstein, 2000)
• Negative Affectivity: 􏰁m = .99

39
Q

Why do infants become attached?

A

Feeding?

Psychoanalytic Theory
• oral needs􏰂
• first relationship as model

Behaviorism
• relief from hunger
• Positive associations —> attachment

BUT…Harlow & Zimmerman study (1950s)
• warm/fuzzy surrogate
• wire mesh surrogate
• when stressed…

Ethology (Lorenz)
• animal behavior & adaptive functions
• 􏰁Imprinting􏰂

Bowlby􏰀s ethological theory
• 􏰁Ethology + Psychoanalysis
• Most influential theory of attachment!

40
Q

Harlow & Zimmerman study (1950s)

A

In a set of classic studies in the 1950s and 1960s, Harry Harlow and others investigated the nature of attachment in young rhesus monkeys.

The researchers exposed young monkeys to 2 artificial mothers, one wrapped in toweling cloth, and another made of bare wire, but with a feeding bottle attached to it.
The experiment showed that the infants clung to the mother with the toweling cloth for most of the time, and would only approach the other mother when in need of food.
This showed that close, warm contact is an important part of bonding with a mother.

41
Q

Bowlby-Ainsworth Attachment Theory

A

Internal Working Models
• sets of expectations about attachment figures and roles of self & other in relationships – both general & specific
• developed based on early experiences with one or more primary caregivers
• links cognition (thinking, mental representations) with emotional experience
• models are stable, but also open to change

42
Q

Typical Signs of Attachment

A

separation anxiety:
• don’t want caregiver to leave!
• peaks at 14-20 mos.

stranger anxiety:
• fear of unfamiliar adults
• peaks at 8-10 mos.

greetings
• of caregiver when he/she returns

secure base behavior
• using caregiver as “base of operations”

social referencing
• looking to others when unsure

43
Q

How is attachment assessed in children?

A 
Strange Situation (1-2 yrs) – Mary Ainsworth
•  series of separations and reunions
•  stranger introduced
Episodes:
•  Researcher intro
•  parent and child
•  parent, child, & stranger 
•  stranger and child alone 
•  parent and child*
•  child alone
•  stranger and child
•  parent and child*

Classifications:

Secure (65%)
• explore freely in caregiver􏰀s presence
• often visibly upset when caregiver leaves
• greet caregiver warmly at reunion

Insecure-Avoidant (20%)
• show little or no distress upon separation
• avoid contact with caregiver upon reunion
• may show more positive behavior w/stranger

Insecure-Resistant (10-15%)
• thoroughly distressed by separations
• don’􏰀t settle easily upon reunions
• mix proximity-seeking and angry behaviors

Disorganized/Disoriented (15%)
• confused, contradictory behaviors
• dazed, fearful facial expressions
• frozen postures

44
Q

Secure

A

(65%)
• explore freely in caregiver􏰀s presence
• often visibly upset when caregiver leaves
• greet caregiver warmly at reunion

45
Q

Insecure-Avoidant

A

(20%)
• show little or no distress upon separation
• avoid contact with caregiver upon reunion
• may show more positive behavior w/stranger

46
Q

Insecure-Resistant

A

(10-15%)
• thoroughly distressed by separations
• don’􏰀t settle easily upon reunions
• mix proximity-seeking and angry behaviors

47
Q

Disorganized/Disoriented

A

(15%)
• confused, contradictory behaviors
• dazed, fearful facial expressions
• frozen postures

48
Q

Stability of Attachment

A

Usually secure and stable for middle-SES babies experiencing favorable life conditions

Low SES families
• Attachment might move from one insecure pattern to another
• Child maltreatment, maternal depression, poor family functioning

Cultural Variations:
• N. Germany
• Japan

Quality of Attachment –> internal working model
• result of quality of care
• Sensitivity
• Infant characteristics

Benefits of secure attachment
• secure attachment –> preschool competence • Continuity of caregiving

49
Q

What about fathers?

A

Infants typically become attached to their fathers as well as to their mothers

Fathers are clearly capable of being as sensitive as mothers are (e.g., feeding; Parke & Sawin, 1977)

But, some research indicates that on average, fathers are less sensitive than are mothers: why?

Fathers may have a special role in playing with their infants

Fathers’􏰀 sensitive and challenging behavior during play in toddlerhood linked to more secure internal working models by adolescence

50
Q

When does self-awareness emerge?

A

Birth:
Intermodal perception

Sense of self-world differentiation

Explicit self-awareness
• More conscious of physical features at 18-20 months

Age 2 yrs –> self-recognition (use of “I,” “me”)
• Make scale errors

Age 2 yrs –> Empathy

51
Q

Categorizing the Self

A

Categorical self (18–30 months): classifying self and others on basis of
• age (“baby,” “boy,” “man”).
• sex (“boy,” “girl”).
• physical characteristics (“big,” “strong”).
• goodness and badness (“I good girl”).

Toddlers use their limited categorical understanding to organize their own behavior.

52
Q

Self-Control

A

Effortful control: ability to inhibit impulses and manage negative emotion

Compliance (12–18 months):
• Toddlers show clear awareness of caregivers’ wishes & expectations.
• Assertiveness & opposition occur alongside eager, willing compliance.

Delay of gratification: influenced by temperament and quality of caregiving.

53
Q

Suggestions for Helping Toddlers Develop Compliance and Self-Control

A
  • Respond with sensitivity and encouragement.
  • Give advance notice of change inactivity.
  • Offer many prompts and reminders.
  • Positively reinforce self-controlled behavior.
  • Encourage selective and sustained attention.
  • Support language development.
  • Increase rules gradually.

Child Development (19 decks)

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