PSY318 Midterm Flashcards
What are four questions we should ask in regard to social development?
Nature vs Nurture
Continuity vs discontinuity
Situation vs individual
Universal vs cultural
ps: intersectionality:
-every part of our lives has some form of impact upon development
-you cannot separate one from the other
Describe nature vs nurture
Nature is ‘innate’. Genetic, temperament. ex. ‘born bad’ → From a children’s book: wolf wasn’t happy being a wolf. When he looked in the mirror, he looked bad. and when he looked bad, he felt bad, and when he felt bad, he acted bad.
Nurture: role of the environment. –> Parenting, educationm socialization. There is not a one size fit all. Each child interpret differently their lives and act on it.
Role of the child: child walks out with everything they interpret. Ex. being at school, they listen to a teacher and walk out after each day…
Previously held belief: passive learners
current belief: active involvement/active learner. → bidirectional relation. it goes both ways. Whatever the parents teach the child, the child takes it back and changes it to fit them. adapt based on the information that we give and receive from the child.
Role of the observer: unique perspective influenced by:
1. biases
2. histories,
3. upbringing
4. understanding of emotion
5. understanding of motivations
Explain continuity vs. discontinuity.
explain differential susceptibility within it
continuity (liearn process, gradual space), discontinuity (stages process, stages forward and backward, not smooth)
–> Multidirectional development: isn’t a smooth pathway. A → B is not always straight!
continuity (2):
1. equifinality: different starting points can lead to the same outcome.
2. Multifinality: the same starting point can lead to many different outcomes.
What’s the diffierence?
–risk factors: factors that increase the chance of something unfavorable developing. Moving, if you have a parent that have social anxiety or not supporting and criticizing you, bullying.
–protective factors: Factors that decrease the chance of something unfavorable developing.
Differential susceptibility: meeting of nature and nurture. When individual is uniquely susceptible to circumstances and events, as influenced by our genes or previous experiences.
Explain situation vs individual
Multicontextual: influenced by the environments, people, situations around us.
Social context: hour our groups affect us.
Bioecological model: ind. -microsystem -> mesosystem -> exosystem -> macrosystem
Explain universal vs cultural (4 points)
1 universal: happens to everyone
2 cultural: happens within a specific culture/societal group
3 historical context: how world events change us
4 cohorts (flexible term): group defined by members shared age. 5
Cohorts experience the same trajectory of events and world
changes
5 Multiculturalism (anthropological): cultural backgrounds influence how we are raised and see the world
6 what is the difference: ethnicity and race
–> ethnicity: often refers to an ancestral heritage,, nationality, language, beliefs, traditions, reflects social circumstances
–> race: 1. phenotypic (outside visible)characteristics such as: skin color, appearance, behavior. 2. genetically linked. Rocignized as social construct
Name two researchers under the psychodynamic approach
Sigmung Freud and Erik Erikson
What were Sigmund Freud’s contributions?
he believed that we are driven by unconscious drives. Development focuses around erogenous zones. We carry history with us. He was the first to declare that parents play a role on how the child will be like.
What are his developmental stages? aka erogenous zones
oral stage 0-1 years
anal stage 2-3 years
phallic stage 3-6 years
latency period 6-12 years
genital stage - puberty onwards
What were Erik Erikson’s contributions?
He talks about psychosocial conflicnt –> crises of learning. He agreed with Freud that parents do have an impact on children but as the environment.
What are the 8 stages of development?
1. Basic trust vs mistrust 0-1.5 years
2.autonomy vs shame & doubt 1.5 - 3 years
3.initiative vs guilt 4-6 years
4.industry vs inferiority 6-11 years
5.identity vs role confusion 12-18 years
6.intimacy vs isolation 19-40 years
7.generativity vs stagnation 40-65 years
8. ego integrity vs despair 65+ years
if we do not resolve a conflict, it will follow you later on. we carry who we are.
What are the two concepts under Learning theories?
Behaviourism (classical and operant conditioning) and reinforcement schedules.
What is behaviourism?
Focuses on observable behavior (not on feelings)
No concentration on unconscious drives
How we learn behaviors
It includes: classical and operant conditioning.
- Conditioning
a. watson: study visible behavior, not the mind
b. process of stimulus invoking a response via training
c. Dog experiment with the bell, saliva,
d. with this came the parenting approach
i. parents are responsible for guiding children’s development
ii. very stern approach: advised parents to achieve distance and objectivity - operant conditioning
a. reinforcement: encouraging behaviors that lead to favorable outcomes (+ & - reinforcement)
b. punishment: suppressing behaviors that result in unfavorable outcomes: (+ & - punishment) positive
what are reinforcement schedules?
ratio: variable and fixed ratio
interval: variable interval, fixed interval
fixed ratio: you always give a sticker to a kid after the kid said thank you. training like a puppy
variable ratio: every 2-3 times after the correct actions are completed.
variable interval: begin your homework and I’ll go check but I don’t tell you when…
fixed interval: each 5 min I’m checking if you’ve completed your homework
Explain reciprocal determinism?
Personal factors, environment and behavior all influenche each other.
attention –> encoding –> storage –> retrieval.
ex. I’ll show you how to play soccer. I show you how to kick the ball. Even if you teach the same way, each kid is gonna learn differently how to kick the ball.
imitation game… kids playing in their kid kitchen
Explain what is information processing
Look at Crick and Dodge (1994) graph (page 8) - created to deal with aggressive behaviors.
We all have different lens where we see a situation…see someone smiling : is it dangerous or is it nice?
1. Encoding of cues (both internal and external)
2. Interpretation of cues.
3. clarification of goals (arousal regulation)
4. Response access or construction
5. response decision (response evaluation, outcome expectations, self-efficacy evaluation, response selection
6. Behavioral enactment (peer evaluation and response) than repeat to #1.
All of the points above are influecnced by the data base ‘memory store, acquired rules, social schemas, social knowledge’.
Explain that is the piagetian theory
Jean Piaget. Changed psychological perspective on human cognition
kids are not sponged, they interact with the world therefore their cognition grow
What are the stages of development that piaget found?
0-2 years : sensorimotor (sensation and motor)
2-6 years: preoperational (little scientist. they experiment with the world around them)
6-11 years: concrete operational ( need to see something to believe)
12 onwards: formal operational ( abstract thinking)
What is the steps to cognitive equilibrium?
cognitive equilibrium: happy, understand the world
new information –> new information –> now we are confused (cognitive disequilibrium) then we need to adapt. two outcomes arises to help us adapt ourselves: assimilation (to something new) or accommodation (making new categories). then we are balance again.
ex. believing that cats are all fluffy. see one that have no hair…
Discuss Vyosty?
He is part of the cognitive theories.
social learning, studied how people were taught different beliefs and habits, based on community importance
growth is not in vacuum - is influenced by our culture
Apprenticeship in thinking: cognitive growth is guided by the mentors and more knowledgeable members of our community
Occurs through guided participation
See one, do one, teach one (best way to learn is to explain)
Discuss zone of proximal development (ZPD)
we know it, but not master it yet
heavily used in education
zones identified by mentors
identify individual’s areas (‘zones’) that holds knowledge, skills, and concepts that are almost (proximal) understood but not completely
ex. learning how to breathe
see graph page 10
System theory - discuss the Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model
individual, microsystem, microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem
Name the three components of the biological aspects
- imprinting
- Evolutionary psychology
- Genetics
What is imprinting?
the ethology is the evolution based on behavioural patterns that have adative or survival value.
Newborn birds/mammals become attached to their ‘mother’ at first sight and follow them everywhere
Humans DO NOT imprint. There is no ‘bond’ between a human newborn and a mother.
What is the evolutionary psychology?
human emotions and behaviors are developed through all human history
Charles Darwin
Retrospect perspective
there is a myth that we become immediately attached to our newborn once we give birth… no.
what is genetics?
Certain genes interact with environment, in adaptive way
genes/traits continue IF promote survival
we won’t get there in a long time
best thing it does: gives us a predeterminism information
innate fear: fear of the dark.
what do humans taker longer to develop compare to other mammals?
It is due to the brain hypothesis! – humans develop more slowly because our brains are so big AND they keep growing for a long period of time. Due to this, we have a long development and we remain ‘immature’ longer than other mammals etc.
*Consider smaller mammals (cats for example), that have a few weeks of being babies and then can be considered adults by a year old. Humans are not considered fully mature until mid twenties
Play is important for social development. Can experiment social situations with minor consequences – consider playing in the kitchen or with play power tools. Social connections – playing house, playing hunting groups
what is the lifespan perspective?
-From beginning to end
-how does development occur across the lifespan
What is the difference between research method and belief?
research: testable, replicable, and valid while belief is based on gut belieft and not in scientific methodology. Belief can provide guidance, connect with other individuals and provide a faith system
What makes a good theory?
- continues to push research and science forward
- provides some sense to the world-organizing known effects
- allows to predict behavior in the real world
what is an hypothesis?
a potential explanation for something that happens
psychology: explanation for human behavior
acts as a starting point for research
what is an experimentation?
examination of causes of behavior. typical design:
experimental group
control/comparison group
pros: study of interventions, controlled environment
cons: elaborate to conduct, recruitment of participants, replicability/validity of results, some human behavior can be hard to evaluate
name and explain three key study types.
- field experiment, 2. intervention and 3. natural experiment
explain pros and cons of Field Study, intervention Study and Natural Study
1.Field study: occurs in natural environment, introduces new element or a change
pros: generalizable Control over experimental variable. Very detailed data, role of social context.
Cons: observational data can be hard to collect. May lack breadth
- Intervention study: implication of a program to try to influence change.
Pros:control over external variable. comparison btw groups.
Cons: long-term effects hard to follow. Lack of generalizability. - Natural Study: measurement of an effect or change that occurs without scientific intervention. ‘quasi-experimental’.
Pros: real-world implications
Cons: lack of control of study variables
what is a longitudinal design?with pros and cons
tracks a group/cohort across a span of time (even a lifespan)
pros: allows developmental implications, very rich data
cons: long, expensive and complicated.
what is a cross-sectional design? with pros and cons
examine a specific age group/cohort to another
*Pros: simpler, less effort to conduct, allows comparison between groups
*Cons: Can’t speak about developmental trajectory, group effects, validity/reliability of results
difference btw quanti and quali, self-report, structured, unstructured, likert scale, external report and life outcome data
quanti: numerical data, variable that can be quantified. like questionnaires, reactions time, etc.
qual: textual data - words, thoughts, opinions, indvidual histories like interview, focus group
self-report: asking the individual to report on their own personality. Pros: we know our own inner thoughts and experiences. We know our goals and dreams. we can talk about our perceptions of how others see us. Cons: We are biased. We may not know everything
Structured: response options are provided, more common method**
Unstructured: open-ended, can be interview-based
Likert scale: rating how much a trait or statement applies to us along a scale (strongly disagree to strongly agree).
External report
asking those around an individual to provide information on the individual
friends, family, colleagues, teachers, partners
pros: give unique perspective depending on contexts, multiple observer benefit
cons: unaware of individual’s inner working, may not know all contexts
Life outcome data: examining the vents and outcomes in an individual’s life
often connected with other data forms to create broad picture. pros: investigate how personality affects our actual lives. cons: lack of control - other factors
text/experimental data
Standardized testing situations
Examine how individuals’ react and perform under controlled situations. Pros: Controlled environment. Elicit behaviour. Hypothesis testing
Cons: Observer effect. Creating valid situations. Observer bias
see graph on page 14
