PSY210: 7. Guest Lecture

Question 1

Erikson: Identity versus Role Confusion

Answer 1

Identity major personality achievement of adolescence

in complex societies teenagers experience identity crisis, period of distress

Question 2

Erikson: Identity versus Role Confusion

Answer 2

Process of inner self searching that builds on characteristics
Combined with emerging traits/capacities/commitments
Can be hindered → results in sense of confusion
Society expose pressure to find adult role
Sexual maturation also press towards different role of maturation

Question 3

Identity

Answer 3

defining who you are, your values, your direction in life
choices about vocation, relationships, expression of one’s sexual orientation, moral ideals, religion
identity crisis

Question 4

Identity

Answer 4

Necessary for adolescents to experience some kind of role confusion while undergoing identity process
Sobering task – resulting in sense of loss and confusion
Encountering new ways learning/ recognizing who are + will be/ actualizing self goals

Question 5

Identity

Answer 5

2 polarities – ideally at end tilted towards more positive edge
constriction in identity → constriction in style of relationships as adult
corner stone on which healthy personality is formed

Question 6

Role confusion

Answer 6

confusion about identity, uncertainty about direction societal constraints
earlier conflicts unresolved inner void, inability to move towards defining commitments
Issues with relationships in all levels
Inability to gain satisfaction of any activity
Lived passively rather than by own motivations

Question 7

Erikson: Identity versus Role Confusion

Answer 7

Resolution lays ground-work for entry into adult life: sets the quality of resolution that is possible for subsequent psychosocial stages
formulation of identity cornerstone of healthy personality

Question 8

Self-Concept and Self-Esteem

Answer 8

more abstract, generalized description of personality traits social work extends - social pressures on different scenarios
self esteem rising in adolescence

Question 9

Self-Concept and Self-Esteem

Answer 9

self-descriptions may depend on situational context which could result in contradictory descriptors
use of qualifiers (“fairly quick temper’)

Question 10

Self-Concept and Self-Esteem

Answer 10

in parallel, self-esteem rises (exception: school transitions)
authoritative parenting, encouragement from teachers predict high self- esteem; high self-esteem individuals tend to be well-adjusted, sociable and conscientious

Question 11

Self-Concept and Self-Esteem

Answer 11

overly critical parenting, inconsistent and negative feedback from teachers predict low self-esteem; indiv tend to be anxious, unfocused + show adjustment difficulties or actually insulting parenting
teenagers may rely on peers not adults to affirm self esteem - make them more vulnerable

Question 12

Marcia: Theory of Identity Achievement

Answer 12

all adolescents need room to grow - safe places to test newly emerging self
questioning values/priorities - is it a crisis? instead identity development a process of periods:
key factors in development of identity
need both processes - contribute differences in outcomes

Question 13

Marcia: Theory of Identity Achievement

Answer 13

similarity with Erikson’s theory:
-certain events (“crises”) prompt movement along continuum
difference to Erikson’s theory: - mul)direc)onal movement between and among the iden)ty statuses
this drives development of identity

Question 14

Marcia: Theory of Identity Achievement

Answer 14

each identity status represents a par)cular configura)on of youth’s progress with regard to iden)ty explora)on and commitment to the values, beliefs, and goals that contribute to iden)ty
-youth may have different iden)ty statues across different iden*ty domains such as work, religion, friendships, gender roles and poli)cs

Question 15

Marcia: Theory of Identity Achievement

Answer 15

identity in variety life events - may vary which identity you are, life events/trigger this processes
4 unique identity points/statuses/stations
acounts for multidirectional movement between the stations - can reevaluate understanding of world and value systems - may cause retreat, more fluid movement

Question 16

Marcia: Theory of Identity Achievement

Answer 16

not necessarily pass through/ experience all 4 - may only do 1 or 2
no assumption of uniform status across different domain’s (family/ work/ religion/ etc) –> can have more than 1 status at a time depending on domain
represent pts along continium from confused unclear sense of identity towards solid strong sense of self

Question 17

Identity diffusion

Answer 17

pathetic state characterized by lack of both exploration and commitment
- may have some explora)ons but more of a “meandering” rather than inten)onal explora)on

Question 18

Identity diffusion

Answer 18

-seem to be more of a carefree doing than explora)on.
haven’t considered identity at all
no meaningful life goals – reactive and passive
least developed – go along with the crowd/short term pressures, avoidant cog style
put trust in fate – time planning problems, sense of hopelessness

Question 19

Identity foreclosure

Answer 19

commitment in absence of exploration
focused on well defined goals
- behavior conforms to expectations of authority
- lack flexibility + can be defensive
- adopt values, beliefs, etc. of authority figures

Question 20

Identity foreclosure

Answer 20

not thought about it/explored any other school/career options
resist information that will contradict, dogmatic/inflexible cog style
not questioning
passively accept identity assigned to them
“good enough”

Question 21

Identity moratorium

Answer 21

exploration without having reached commitment
engaged in explora)on of roles, values, etc.
tend to move between conformity and rebellion
tend to be more anxious than other statuses
healthy trajectory
crisis –> explore different goals

Question 22

Identity achievement

Answer 22

commitment to the values beliefs + goals following a period of expiration
tend to have resolved questions about their own values, norms, etc.
more thoughtful and introspective
can explain their explorations and choices
perform well under stress

Question 23

Identity achievement

Answer 23

tend to resolve moral dilemmas at high levels of moral reasoning
youth must feel positive and confident about identity values
assumption that mature and well adjusted person possess a well defined sense of self

Question 24

Identity achievement

Answer 24

should be able to proritize what’s important to them, sorted out who want to be
experiemnted and amalyzed pathway in life
youth must feel positive and confident about values
health routes to mature self identification

Question 25

Identity Status and Psychological Well-Being

Answer 25

identity achievement/moratorium: healthy trajectories; information- gathering cognitive style, high goals + aspiration
identity foreclosure/diffusion: maladaptive: fear rejection
short term pleasures - trust fate/luck
foreclosure: dogmatic, inflexible cognitive style
diffused: diffuse-avoidant cognitive style
high correlation drug abuse and anti social acts

Question 26

Factors Affecting Identity Development

Answer 26

enhanced when family serves as “secure base”
parenting styles:
democratic parenting fosters identity achievement (teenagers feel free to voice their own opinion)
autocra)c paren)ng fosters iden)ty foreclosure (insufficient opportuni)es for healthy separa)on)
permissive paren)ng foster iden)ty diffusion (lack of certainty)

Question 27

Kohlberg: Moral Development

Answer 27

building on Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development
used Piaget’s story-telling approach to tell people stories involving moral dilemmas
moral maturity is determined by the way an individual reasons about the dilemma, not so much the content of the response

Question 28

Kohlberg: Heinz dilemma

Answer 28

Qualitatively different between stages
consequently in series of invariant sequences
3 levels of development each with 2 stages
principal everyone given full and equal respect – otherways just soloution could no be reached

Question 29

Kohlberg: Heinz dilemma

Answer 29

important = reasoning behind response
different par)cipants might choose the same solu)on to Heinz’s moral dilemma, but for different reasons that revealed the differing founda)ons of their moral thinking
let wife die, so that Heinz would not go to prison
steal the drug because fate/God would punish Heinz for letting his wife die

Question 30

Kohlberg: Heinz dilemma

Answer 30

let wife die because stealing is against the law
steal the drug because failing to help someone who is in danger is punishable by law
reach just decisions by looking at a situa)on through one another’s eyes (perspec)ve taking)

Question 31

Kohlberg: Heinz dilemma

Answer 31

same solution but for different reasons
these reason show moral thinking level
reach just/moral decisions by looking at dilemma through all peoples povs
assume “bane of ignorance” - acting as if you do not know which role you will eventually occupy
all individuals must be given full and equal respect
-no life can be valued over another

Question 32

Factors Affecting Identity Development

Answer 32

cause and consequence as identity development

• identity development enhanced when family serves as “secure base”
• paren)ng styles:
• democra)c paren)ng fosters iden)ty achievement (teenagers feel free to voice their own opinion)
• autocra)c paren)ng fosters iden)ty foreclosure (insufficient opportuni)es for healthy separa)on)

Question 33

Factors Affecting Identity Development

Answer 33

• permissive paren)ng foster iden)ty diffusion (lack of certainty)
  identity development enhance when family serves as secure base
  how do people learn to make morally sound decisions?
  How children develop ability?

Question 34

Kohlberg: Moral Development

Answer 34

how do people larn to make morally sound desicions

• building on Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development
• used Piaget’s story-telling approach to tell people stories involving moral dilemmas

Question 35

Kohlberg: Moral Development

Answer 35

• moral maturity is determined by the way an individual reasons about the dilemma, not so much the content of the response
• arrived at three levels of moral development, each with two stages

Question 36

Kohlberg: Moral Development

Answer 36

consequently in series of invariant sequences

diff modes thinking/problem solvings at each level - qualitatively different

Question 37

Kohlberg: Moral Development

Answer 37

get bike if saves enough money - lauren saves up money tells father and father reverses desision
and says to give him money for faster car - torn between obeying him and not supporting his destrictive
driving habts

Question 38

Kohlberg: Moral Development

Answer 38

how make descision in moral develeopment - especially in children
moral maturity about way deal with moral development not actual content of response

Question 39

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Level 2: The conventional level

Answer 39

Stage 4: Social-order-maintaining orientation (The Good Citizen)
conventions that guide behaviour expand to include wider rule of society
justice demands wrong doers be punished, precedant/consistancy must be maintained
following laws is rewarded
right = maintain order for its own sake
**most adults this is the max they attain

Question 40

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Level 3: The post-conventional or principled level

Answer 40

Stage 5: social contract orientation (the philosopher)
Question: What is the just things to do given all the circumstances? What will bring the most good to the greatest number of people?
Heinz Dilemma: steal, the law needs to be reinterpreted; no anti stealing response

Question 41

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Level 3: The post-conventional or principled level

Answer 41

Stage 5: social contract orientation (the philosopher)
applies to 10-15% of adults some teenagers but usually not till mid 30s or 40s
freely entire commitment
clear awareness of relativeness of personal values
right action is a matter of personal action and opinions
additional emphasis on changing law in terms of changing – outside free agreement/ free contract these are the binding elements (the official level of morality)

Question 42

Kohlberg: Heinz dilemma

Answer 42

Kohlberg – agreed with piaget but wanted to further develop
Qualitatively different between stages
3 levels of development each with 2 stages
principal everyone given full and equal respect – otherways just soloution could no be reached
must be impartial

Question 43

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Level 3: The post-conventional or principled level

Answer 43

Stage 6: universal ethical principle orientation (the prophet)
individual judgments of good and bad influenced by universal moral principals
consciousness – self chosen ethical principles appeal to universality
categorical imperative – not concrete moral rules
principals of justice, respect of human beings as individual persons

Question 44

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development

Answer 44

people go through stages in above order
only 20-25% of the adult popula)on aWain the post-conven)onal level; in fact, even the conven)onal levels are already quite mature

Question 45

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development

Answer 45

People reason below levels capable (e.g., emotional factors, situational context) – discussion can encourage development because these higher levels can be reasoned
As gains traction also gains criticism

Question 46

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Problems with Methods

Answer 46

dilemmas are ar)ficial and hypothe)cal:
Most of the dilemmas are unfamiliar to most people. never been married and never been placed in a situa)on remotely like the one in the story. How should they know whether Heinz should steal the drug? dilemmas lack ecological validity.

Question 47

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Problems with Methods

Answer 47

lack general validity: In a real situa)on what course of ac)on a person takes will have real consequences – and some)mes very unpleasant ones for themselves. Would par)cipants reason in the same way if they were placed in a real situa)on? We just don’t know.

Question 48

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Problems with Methods

Answer 48

sample is biased:
Gilligan noted that all par)cipants in Kohlberg’s study were male; reflect male defini)on of morality (i.e., it is androcentric); abstract principles of law and jus)ce versus principles of compassion and care

Question 49

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Problems with Methods

Answer 49

Need other variables to clarify the relationship – moral identity (moral reasoning integrated into moral behavior)
claims moral of male advanced to females – girls tend to be at stage 3 boys at stage 4
gender debate has large impacts - cannot be ignored
vs principals of passion/care 9may be found more in females?)

Question 50

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Problems with Theory

Answer 50

-Dis)nct stages?: situa)onal, emo)onal, cultural factors
-moral reasoning equals moral behaviour
only modest connec)on to action; moral iden)ty as modulator
keep in mind: powerful theory, influen)al findings

Question 51

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Problems with Theory

Answer 51

evidence doesn’t always support
cultural bias - main stream North American moral values
moral behavior more consistent more predictable at higher stages

Question 52

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Problems with Theory

Answer 52

identity (how central morality central to self construct) –> driving decision making
Capable of great reasoning – but do you see it in actions?
scale or moral thinking not moral actions – may not behave accordingly to talk at high moral level

Question 53

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Problems with Theory

Answer 53

jus)ce as most fundamental moral principle?
principle of compassion versus principle of jus)ce
women prioritize ethics of care over ethics of justice - challenges fundemental assumptions
central assumption that with age gain moral prowess - strong concept

Question 54

Early adulthood: cognitive development

Answer 54

postformal thought:

• more flexible + logical; integra)ng moral and intellectual complexities
• researchers have observed that cogni)ve development occurs beyond Piaget’s formal opera)ons
• as personal effort and social experiences spark, increasingly ra)onal, flexible, and prac)cal ways of thinking

Question 55

Perry: epistemic cognition

Answer 55

relativistic thinking and dualistic thinking
refers to our reflections on how we arrive at facts, beliefs, and ideas
-when mature, rational thinkers reach conclusions that differ from those of others, they consider the justifiability of their conclusions
-when they cannot justify their approach, they revise it, seeking a more balanced, adequate route to acquiring knowledge

Question 56

Kohlberg: Heinz dilemma

Answer 56

important = reasoning behind eavh response
different par)cipants might choose the same solu)on to Heinz’s moral dilemma, but for different reasons that revealed the differing founda)ons of their moral thinking
- let wife die, so that Heinz - steal the drug because fate/God
would not go to prison

Question 57

Kohlberg: Heinz dilemma

Answer 57

• let wife die because stealing is against the law
  would punish Heinz for lexng his wife die
• steal the drug because failing to help someone who is in danger is punishable by law
  Kohlberg: we reach just decisions by looking at a situa)on through one another’s eyes (perspec)ve taking)

Question 58

Perry: epistemic cognition

Answer 58

• younger students regarded knowledge as made up of separate units (beliefs and preposi)ons)
• they believed the truth of these separate units could be determined by comparing them to objective standards:
  these standards exist apart from the thinking person and his/her current situation

Question 59

Perry: epistemic cognition

Answer 59

engaged in dualis’c thinking – dividing information,
values, and authority into right and wrong, good and bad, we and they
ex. College freshman: “When I went to my first lecture, what the man said was just like God’s word. I believed everything he said because he is a professor… and this is a respected posi)on.”

Question 60

Kohlberg: Heinz dilemma

Answer 60

same solution but for different reasons
these reason show moral thinking level
reach just/moral decisions by looking at dilemna through all peoples povs
assume “bane of ignorance” - acting as if you do not know which role you will eventually occupy
all individuals must be given full and equal respect
-no life can be valued over another

Question 61

Perry: epistemic cognition

Answer 61

older students moved toward rela’vis’c thinking – viewing all knowledge as embedded in a framework of thought
being aware of a diversity of opinions on many topics, they gave up the possibility of absolute truth in favor of mul)ple truths, each rela)ve to its context

Question 62

Perry: epistemic cognition

Answer 62

one’s own beliefs are often subjec)ve, since several frameworks satisfy the criterion of internal logical consistency
acutely aware that each person, in arriving at a posi)on, creates his/her own “truth”
if amongst equals discussions made lead to resolutions not concurrent to absolute truth
process of thinking through soloutions may go deeper - don’t accept pov because they have authority

Question 63

Perry: epistemic cognition

Answer 63

commitment within rela’vis’c thinking – instead of choosing between opposing views, they try to formulate a more sa)sfying perspec)ve that synthesizes contradic)ons
the individual moves beyond the stance that everything is a maWer of opinion and generates ra)onal criteria against which op)ons can be evaluated

Question 64

Perry: epistemic cognition

Answer 64

few college students reach this extension of rela)vism
adults who aWain it generally display a more sophis)cated approach to learning
they ac)vely seek out differing perspec)ves to advance their knowledge and understanding

Question 65

Perry: epistemic cognition

Answer 65

advances in epistemic cogni)on depend on further gains in metacogni)on
more likely to occur in situa)ons that challenge young peoples’ perspec)ves and induce them to consider ra)onality of their thought processes

Question 66

Perry: epistemic cognition

Answer 66

interac)on among individuals who are roughly equal in knowledge and authority is beneficial
prevents acceptance of another’s reasoning simply because of greater power or exper)se
movement from dualism to rela)vism is probably limited to people who are college educated

Question 67

Labouvie-Vief: pragmatic thought and cognitive- affective complexity

Answer 67

theory needs to be testable/falseifiable
like Perry, points out that whereas adolescents operate within a world of possibility, adulthood involves movement from hypothe)cal to pragmatic thought
pragma’c thought – a structural advance in which logic becomes a tool for solving real-world problems

Question 68

Labouvie-Vief: pragmatic thought and cognitive- affective complexity

Answer 68

need to specialize motivates this change
as adults select one path out of many alterna)ves, they become more aware of the constraints of everyday life; in the course of balancing various roles, they accept contradic)ons as part of existence and develop ways of thinking that thrive on imperfec)on and compromise
viewing of this stage of life

Question 69

Labouvie-Vief: pragmatic thought and cognitive- affective complexity

Answer 69

enhanced reflec)ve capaci)es alter the dynamics of their emo)onal lives
young adults become more adept in integra)ng cogni)on with emo)on which allows for making sense of discrepancies
discrepancies not ignored but dealt with development of thought and integrated

Question 70

Labouvie-Vief: pragmatic thought and cognitive- affective complexity

Answer 70

from adolescence through middle adulthood, people gain in cognitive-affective complexity – awareness of positive and negative feelings and coordination of them into a complex organized structure
34 year old combined roles and traits into coherent description - with birth of 1st child more prepared than ever but more struggles - temper their needs with fuflilling needs of child while maintain self as individual **adults emotional intelligence - very important

Question 71

Labouvie-Vief: pragmatic thought and cognitive- affective complexity

Answer 71

cogni)ve-affec)ve complexity promotes greater awareness of one’s own and others’ perspec)ves and mo)va)ons
it is a vital aspect of adult emo)onal intelligence and is valuable in solving many pragma)c problems
makes sense of positive and negative feelings, allows thinking rational about real world dilemma even those containing lots of negative information

Question 72

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development

Answer 72

• several dilemmas
• three levels, two stages in each
• par)cipants: school-aged boys, some included in follow-up
  asked many question - analyzed

Question 73

Expertise and Creativity

Answer 73

expertise–acquisition of extensive knowledge in a field or endeavor
because it takes many years to master any complex domain, expertise is supported by the specializa)on that begins with selec)ng a college major or an occupa)on
cognitively dealng with information different ways
chess players cognitively chunking information where as novices - slower and less efective

Question 74

Expertise and Creativity

Answer 74

once attained, exper’se has a profound impact on informa’on processing
characteris)cs of experts
experts remember + reason more quickly and effec)vely
experts know more domain-specific concepts, and represent them at a deeper and more abstract level and as having more features that can be linked to other concepts

Question 75

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Level 1: Pre-conventional morality

Answer 75

Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience (Might Makes Right)
Ques)on: What must I do to avoid punishment? What can I do to force my will upon others?
Heinz Dilemma: don’t steal because you will go to jail; steal the drug because if you let your wife die, there will be an inves)ga)on

Question 76

Expertise and Creativity

Answer 76

exper)se is necessary for crea)vity + problem solving
besides just being original, the crea)ve products of adults must be directed at a social or aesthe)c need
5 yr old creative in drawngs - different kind of creativity (about being original)

Question 77

Expertise and Creativity

Answer 77

mature crea)vity requires the ability to formulate new, culturally meaningful problems and to ask significant ques)ons that have not been posed before
this movement from problem solving to problem finding is a core feature of postformal thought evident in highly accomplished ar)sts and scien)sts

Question 78

Expertise and Creativity

Answer 78

case studies support the 10-year rule in development of master-level crea)vity
decade between ini)al exposure to a field and sufficient exper)se to produce a crea)ve work
crea)ve accomplishment rises in early adulthood, peaks in the late 30s or early 40s, and gradually declines

Question 79

Expertise and Creativity

Answer 79

early start in crea)vity tend to peak and drop off sooner, while “late bloomers” hit their stride at older ages
this suggests that crea’vity is more a func’on of “career age” than of chronological age

Question 80

Expertise and Creativity

Answer 80

course of crea)vity also varies across disciplines
artists + musicians typically show an early rise in creativity, maybe because they do not need extensive formal education before they begin to produce
academic scholars and scientists, who must earn higher academic degrees and spend years doing research to make worthwhile contributions, usually display their achievements later and over a longer time

Question 81

Expertise and Creativity

Answer 81

creativity requires other quali)es in addi)on to exper)se
an innova)ve thinking style, tolerance of ambiguity, a special drive to succeed, and a willingness to experiment and try again after failure
crea)vity is determined by mul)ple factors and, when promoted by personal situa)onal factors, can con)nue many decades

Question 82

Expertise and Creativity

Answer 82

creativity requires other quali)es in addi)on to exper)se
an innova)ve thinking style, tolerance of ambiguity, a special drive to succeed, and a willingness to experiment and try again after failure
crea)vity is determined by mul)ple factors and, when promoted by personal situa)onal factors, can con)nue many decades
level of resilience and openness

Question 83

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Level 1: Pre-conventional morality

Answer 83

Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience (Might Makes Right)
avoid consequences usually from parents
avoidance of punishment and unvarying deference to power/authority
very little perspective taking

Question 84

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Level 1: Pre-conventional morality

Answer 84

Stage 2: Instrumental Purpose (The Egoist)
Ques)on: What’s in it for me? What must I do to avoid pain, gain pleasure?
Heinz Dilemma: don’t steal, more risk than it is worth; steal even when you risk going to jail, aoer all it is your life and thus your choice

Question 85

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Level 1: Pre-conventional morality

Answer 85

Stage 2: Instrumental Purpose (The Egoist)
market place exchange of favors or blows - do unto others as they do unto you
satisfy own needs and maybe occasionally needs of others
elements of fairness/sharing but all in a physical understanding (you scratch my back ill scath yours)
not loyalty/gratitude/justice

Question 86

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Level 2: The conventional level

Answer 86

Stage 3: interpersonal cooperation (good boy – good girl orientation)
Question: What must I do to be seen as a good girl/boy (socially acceptable)?
Heinz Dilemma: steal because you will never be able to look anyone in the face again if you won’t; don’t steal, you will bring dishonour to you and your family

Question 87

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Level 2: The conventional level

Answer 87

Stage 3: interpersonal cooperation (good boy – good girl orientation)
conform to personal expectations and loyalty - actively maintaining(social groups not individuals as source of authority)/supporting the order established
age 7 to age 12
seek acceptance from members of other group - good behaviour is what approved by others/ how majority behaves (conformity)

Question 88

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Level 2: The conventional level

Answer 88

Stage 4: Social-order-maintaining orientation (The Good Citizen)
Ques)on: What if everyone did that?
Heinz Dilemma: steal the drug with the idea of paying later and accep)ng the penalty; don’t steal, if everyone starts breaking the law in a jam, civiliza)on will break down
age more blurry 10 to about 15 or older on average

Question 89

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Level 2: The conventional level

Answer 89

Stage 4: Social-order-maintaining orientation (The Good Citizen)
conventions that guide behaviour expand to include wider rule of society
justice demans wrong doers be punished, precedant/consistancy must be maintained
following laws is rewarded
right = miatingiant order for its own sake
**most adults this is the max they attain

Question 90

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Level 3: The post-conventional or principled level

Answer 90

Stage 5: social contract orientation (the philosopher)
Question: What is the just things to do given all the circumstances? What will bring the most good to the greatest number of people?
Heinz Dilemma: steal, the law needs to be reinterpreted; no an)stealing response

Question 91

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Level 3: The post-conventional or principled level

Answer 91

Stage 5: social contract orientation (the philosopher)
applies to 10-15% of adults some teenagers but usually not till mid 3s or 40s
freely entire commitment
clear awareness of relativeness of personal values
right action is a matter of personal action and opinions
additional emphasis on changing law in terms of changing – outside free agreement/ free contract these are the binding elements (the official level of morality)

Question 92

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Level 3: The post-conventional or principled level

Answer 92

Stage 6: universal ethical principle orientation (the prophet) Question: What if everyone did that?
Heinz Dilemma: steal, respect for human life is absolute and as such, we have a mutual duty to save one another

Question 93

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Level 3: The post-conventional or principled level

Answer 93

Stage 6: universal ethical principle orientation (the prophet)
individual judgments of good and bad influenced by universal moral principals
consciousness – self chosen ethical prinicplas appeal to universality
categorical imperative – not concrete moral rules
principals of justice, respect of human beings as individual persons

Question 94

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development

Answer 94

• people go through stages in above order
• only 20-25% of the adult popula)on aWain the post-conven)onal level; in fact, even the conven)onal levels are already quite mature
• in real life, people ooen reason below levels of which they are capable (e.g., emo)onal factors, situa)onal context)

Question 95

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development

Answer 95

People reason below levels capable – discussion can encourage development because these higher levels can be reasoned
As gains traction also gains criticism

Question 96

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Problems with Methods

Answer 96

• The dilemmas are ar)ficial and hypothe)cal:
  Most of the dilemmas are unfamiliar to most people. For example, in the Heinz dilemma Kohlberg’s par)cipants were aged between 7 and 16. They have never been married and never been placed in a situa)on remotely like the one in the story. How should they know whether Heinz should steal the drug? As such, the dilemmas lack ecological validity.

Question 97

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Problems with Methods

Answer 97

They may also lack general validity: In a real situa)on what course of ac)on a person takes will have real consequences – and some)mes very unpleasant ones for themselves. Would par)cipants reason in the same way if they were placed in a real situa)on? We just don’t know.

Question 98

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Problems with Methods

Answer 98

Most people never been married – how should they know how Hienz should act in moral dilemma
In real life what course of action a person decided to take has real life consequences – can be very unpleasant
Would the reason in same way if placed in real life situation? General validity?

Question 99

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Problems with Methods

Answer 99

• The sample is biased:
  Gilligan noted that all par)cipants in Kohlberg’s study were male; reflect male defini)on of morality (i.e., it is androcentric); abstract principles of law and jus)ce versus principles of compassion and care
  chicago school boys all male sample

Question 100

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Problems with Methods

Answer 100

Need other variables to clarify the relationship – moral identity (moral reasoning integrated into moral behavior)
Kohlberg claims moral of male advanced to females – girls tend to be at stage 3 boys at stage 4
gender debate has large impacts - cannot be ignored
vs principals of passion/care 9may be found more in females?)

Question 101

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Problems with Theory

Answer 101

• Dis)nct stages?
  situa)onal, emo)onal, cultural factors
• moral reasoning equals moral behaviour?
  only modest connec)on; moral iden)ty as modulator
• jus)ce as most fundamental moral principle?
  principle of compassion versus principle of jus)ce (Gilligan’s point, see earlier slide)
  keep in mind: powerful theory, influen)al findings

Question 102

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Problems with Theory

Answer 102

evidence doesn’t always support
Behind theory culturally biased POV – north American perspective
Capable of great reasoning – but do you see it in actions?
Kohlberg is a scale or moral thinking not moral actions – may not behave accordingly to talk at high moral level

Question 103

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Problems with Theory

Answer 103

cultural bias - main stream North American moral values
moral behavior more consistent more predictable at higher stages
satge 3 = feelings ;vary
stage 4 = laws; more consistent
more research to support but not clear cut - there is a relationship between moral behaviour
and action but need other variables to clarify ie moral identity (how central morality central to
self construct) –> driving decision making
is justice most fundemental moral principal (kohlberg clearly thinks so) - Gilenberg : caring is equally important

Question 104

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development: Problems with Theory

Answer 104

women prioritize ethics of care over ethics of justice - challenges fundemental assumptions
central assumption that with age gain moral prowess - strong concept

Question 105

Early adulthood: cognitive development

Answer 105

pospormal thought:

• more flexible and logical; integra)ng moral and intellectual complexities
• researchers studying pospormal thought have observed that cogni)ve development occurs beyond Piaget’s formal opera)ons
• as personal effort and social experiences spark, increasingly ra)onal, flexible, and prac)cal ways of thinking

Question 106

Perry: epistemic cogni)on

Answer 106

relativistic thinking and dualistic thinking
refers to our reflec)ons on how we arrive at facts, beliefs, and
ideas
- when mature, ra)onal thinkers reach conclusions that differ from
those of others, they consider the jus)fiability of their conclusions
- when they cannot jus)fy their approach, they revise it, seeking a more balanced, adequate route to acquiring knowledge

Question 107

Perry: epistemic cognition

Answer 107

what stood out for you during this previous year?
responses indicated that students reflection on knowing changed as experience complexity
of college life and moved closer to adulthood

Question 108

Perry: epistemic cognition

Answer 108

• Perry interviewed university students to discover why they respond in drama)cally different ways to the diversity of ideas they encounter in college
• at the end of each of their 4 years, he asked students “what stood out” during the previous year

Question 109

Perry: epistemic cognition

Answer 109

• responses indicated that the students’ reflec)ons on “knowing” changed as they experienced the complexi)es of university life and moved closer to adult roles

Question 110

Perry: epistemic cognition

Answer 110

• younger students regarded knowledge as made up of separate units (beliefs and preposi)ons)
• they believed the truth of these separate units could be determined by comparing them to objec)ve standards:
  these standards exist apart from the thinking person and his/her
  current situa)on

Question 111

Perry: epistemic cognition

Answer 111

• as a result, they engaged in dualis’c thinking – dividing informa)on,
  values, and authority into right and wrong, good and bad, we and they
  ex. College freshman: “When I went to my first lecture, what the man said was just like God’s word. I believed everything he said because he is a professor… and this is a respected posi)on.”

Question 112

Perry: epistemic cognition

Answer 112

Idea are very individualized – how great their thought could be without it being absolute
no absolute truth - instead multiple truths each realtive to context (more flexible/tolerant)

Question 113

Perry: epistemic cognition

Answer 113

older students moved toward rela’vis’c thinking – viewing all knowledge as embedded in a framework of thought
being aware of a diversity of opinions on many topics, they gave
up the possibility of absolute truth in favor of mul)ple truths, each rela)ve to its context

Question 114

Perry: epistemic cognition

Answer 114

as a result, their thinking becomes more flexible and tolerant
ex. College senior: “Just seeing how [famous philosophers] fell short of an all-encompassing answer, [you realize] that ideas are really individualized. And you begin to have respect for how great their thought could be, without its being absolute.”

Question 115

Perry: epistemic cognition

Answer 115

• rela)vis)c thinking leads to the realiza)on that one’s own beliefs are ooen subjec)ve, since several frameworks sa)sfy the criterion of internal logical consistency
  thus, the rela)vis)c thinker is acutely aware that each person, in arriving at a posi)on, creates his/her own “truth”
  if amongst equals discussions made lead to resolutions not concurrent to absolute truth
  process of thinking through soloutions may go deeper - don’t accept pov because they have authority

Question 116

Perry: epistemic cognition

Answer 116

• eventually, the most mature individuals progress to commitment within rela’vis’c thinking – instead of choosing between opposing views, they try to formulate a more sa)sfying perspec)ve that synthesizes contradic)ons
• when considering which of two theories studied in a college course is beWer, or which of several movies most deserves an Oscar
  the individual moves beyond the stance that everything is a maWer of opinion and generates ra)onal criteria against which op)ons can be evaluated

Question 117

Perry: epistemic cognition

Answer 117

• few college students reach this extension of rela)vism
• adults who aWain it generally display a more sophis)cated approach to learning
  they ac)vely seek out differing perspec)ves to advance their knowledge and understanding

Question 118

Perry: epistemic cognition

Answer 118

• importance of peer interac)on and reflec)on
• advances in epistemic cogni)on depend on further gains in metacogni)on
  more likely to occur in situa)ons that challenge young peoples’ perspec)ves and induce them to consider the ra)onality of their thought processes

Question 119

Perry: epistemic cognition

Answer 119

• interac)on among individuals who are roughly equal in knowledge and authority is beneficial
  prevents acceptance of another’s reasoning simply because of greater power or exper)se
• movement from dualism to rela)vism is probably limited to people who are college educated

Question 120

Perry: epistemic cognition

Answer 120

because of the many viewpoints encountered in the course of college study; the most advanced aWainment – commitment within rela.vism – may require advanced graduate study
may not see kinds of thinking in anyone

Question 121

Labouvie-Vief: pragmatic thought and cognitive- affective complexity

Answer 121

theory needs to be testable/falseifiable
- like Perry, Labouvie-Vief points out that whereas adolescents operate within a world of possibility, adulthood involves movement from hypothe)cal to pragma*c thought
pragma’c thought – a structural advance in which logic becomes a tool for solving real-world problems

Question 122

Labouvie-Vief: pragmatic thought and cognitive- affective complexity

Answer 122

• the need to specialize mo)vates this change
  as adults select one path out of many alterna)ves, they become more aware of the constraints of everyday life; in the course of balancing various roles, they accept contradic)ons as part of existence and develop ways of thinking that thrive on imperfec)on and compromise
  viewing of this stage of life

Question 123

Labouvie-Vief: pragmatic thought and cognitive- affective complexity

Answer 123

• these enhanced reflec)ve capaci)es alter the dynamics of their emo)onal
  lives
  young adults become more adept in integra)ng cogni)on with emo)on which allows for making sense of discrepancies
  discrepancies not ignored but dealt with development of thought and integrated

Question 124

Labouvie-Vief: pragmatic thought and cognitive- affective complexity

Answer 124

• Labovie-Vief found that from adolescence through middle adulthood, people gain in cogni’ve-affec’ve complexity – awareness of posi)ve and nega)ve feelings and coordina)on of them into a complex organized structure
  34 year old combined roles and traits into coherent description - with birth of 1st child more prepared than ever but more struggles - temper their needs with fuflilling needs of child while maintain self as individual **adults emotional intelligence - very important

Question 125

Labouvie-Vief: pragmatic thought and cognitive- affective complexity

Answer 125

cogni)ve-affec)ve complexity promotes greater awareness of one’s own and others’ perspec)ves and mo)va)ons
it is a vital aspect of adult emo)onal intelligence and is valuable in solving many pragma)c problems
makes sense of positive and negative feelings, allows thinking rational about real world dilemma even those containing lots of negative information

Question 126

Labouvie-Vief: pragmatic thought and cognitive- affective complexity

Answer 126

it helps people regulate intense emo)on and, therefore, think ra)onally about real-world dilemmas, even those that are full of nega)ve informa)on
more specialized and context bound thought
may be saying bye to some parts and opens new doors to higher levels of confidence

Question 127

Expertise and Creativity

Answer 127

• exper’se – acquisi)on of extensive knowledge in a field or endeavor
• because it takes many years to master any complex domain, exper)se is supported by the specializa)on that begins with selec)ng a college major or an occupa)on
  cognitively dealng with information different ways
  chess players cognitively chunking information where as novices - slower and less efective

Question 128

Expertise and Creativity

Answer 128

• once aWained, exper’se has a profound impact on informa’on processing
• characteris)cs of experts
  experts remember and reason more quickly and effec)vely
  experts know more domain-specific concepts, and represent them at a deeper and more abstract level and as having more features that can be linked to other concepts

Question 129

Expertise and Creativity

Answer 129

when faced with a complicated problem
novices tend to use a trial and error approach
experts tend to plan ahead, systema)cally analyzing and categorizing elements and selec)ng the best from many possibili)es

Question 130

Expertise and Creativity

Answer 130

exper)se is necessary for crea)vity , as well as problem solving
besides just being original, the crea)ve products of adults must be
directed at a social or aesthe)c need
5 yr old creative in drawngs - different kind of creativity (about being original)

Question 131

Expertise and Creativity

Answer 131

mature crea)vity requires the ability to formulate new, culturally meaningful problems and to ask significant ques)ons that have not been posed before
this movement from problem solving to problem finding is a core feature of pospormal thought evident in highly accomplished ar)sts and scien)sts
not about problem solving but problem finding - process of problem finding is core feature of thought

Question 132

Expertise and Creativity

Answer 132

• case studies support the 10-year rule in development of master-level crea)vity
  a decade between ini)al exposure to a field and sufficient exper)se to produce a crea)ve work
• crea)ve accomplishment rises in early adulthood, peaks in the late 30s or early 40s, and gradually declines

Question 133

Expertise and Creativity

Answer 133

• those who get an early start in crea)vity tend to peak and drop off sooner, while “late bloomers” hit their stride at older ages
  this suggests that crea’vity is more a func’on of “career age” than of chronological age

Question 134

Expertise and Creativity

Answer 134

• the course of crea)vity also varies across disciplines
  ar)sts and musicians typically show an early rise in crea)vity, maybe because they do not need extensive formal educa)on before they begin to produce
  academic scholars and scien)sts, who must earn higher academic degrees and spend years doing research to make worthwhile contribu)ons, usually display their achievements later and over a longer )me
  different time for it depending on domain

Question 135

Expertise and Creativity

Answer 135

• crea)vity requires other quali)es in addi)on to exper)se
  an innova)ve thinking style, tolerance of ambiguity, a special drive to
  succeed, and a willingness to experiment and try again aoer failure
• crea)vity is determined by mul)ple factors and, when promoted by personal situa)onal factors, can con)nue many decades
  level of resilience and openness