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PSY210 > PSY210: 1. Theory + Research > Flashcards

PSY210: 1. Theory + Research Flashcards

1
Q

Developmental psychology

A

study of lifelong often age-related processes of change

how cognition + behaviour changes as we get older

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2
Q

Historical Views of Childhood: Preformationism

A

after infancy, children were regarded as mini, already formed adults
think + act same way
infancy isn’t same for us, birth-7 years
after 7, they are adults - aligns with piaget’s stage

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3
Q

Historical Views of Childhood: Preformationism

A

apprentice at jobs - can follow rules, perform basic commands at stages
we still treat children as adults

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4
Q

Historical Views of Childhood: Reformation

A

revised view of childhood sprang from religious belief of original sin
children born sinful, society’s job through education + religion to become good citizens

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5
Q

Historical Views of Childhood: Philosophies of the Enlightenment

A

John Locke - tabula rasa
blank slate - society molds us, experiences make us who we are
education - equal, general

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6
Q

Historical Views of Childhood: Philosophies of the Enlightenment

A

Jean Jacques Rousseau - noble savages: innately good
education should be universal
movie ratings

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7
Q

Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

A

early prenatal growth of many species is strikingly similar

development of human child followed same general plan as evolution of human species

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8
Q

Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

A

maybe development recapitulates evolution of humans
babies crawl, humans crawled, then learn to walk + talk
understand children, understand evolution of mankind

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9
Q

Early Scientific Beginnings: baby biographies

A

biographies: scientists that made daily detailed notes about children
weren’t organized, scientific, biased (own children)

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10
Q

Early Scientific Beginnings: Normative Period of Child Study

A

g. stanley hall - groups of children of similar ages, what’s typical at this age, what behaviours can they do (can they crawl?)

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11
Q

Early Scientific Beginnings: Mental Testing Movement

A

binet: french psychologist - identify children having difficulty in school
intelligence test: assess each children at each age group with stuff they’re learning at school
what cognitive skills are normal at this age?

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12
Q

Early Scientific Beginnings:

A

-

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13
Q

Early Scientific Beginnings:

A

-

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14
Q

Psychoanalytic perspective

A

Conflicts: 2 things shape development
• biological drives!
• social expectations!

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15
Q

Psychoanalytic perspective

A

Freud and Erikson!
• Emphasis on unique life history
freud: drive for pleasure + violence - butt against societal expectations
friction between id + superego makes personality
erikson: what conflicts are having at every stage of life?

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16
Q

Freud’s three parts of personality

A 
Id
" Largest portion of the mind
" Unconscious, present at birth
" Source of biological needs/desires
Ego
" Conscious, rational part of mind " Emerges in early infancy
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17
Q

Freud’s three parts of personality

A 
" Redirects id impulses acceptably
Superego
" The conscience
" Develops from ages 3 to 6 from
interactions with caregivers
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18
Q

Freud’s three parts of personality

A

children born with id, but no ego + superego
we realize we can’t always get what we want
ego develops: rational - wait/substitute with other pleasure
develop superego: model after conscience of parents

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19
Q

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

A 
Oral!
• Anal - anus: bathroom
• Phallic!
• Latency! latency: social interaction
• Genital
too much/little pleasure: fixated (smoke/toothpicks)
anal stage: too organized
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20
Q

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

A

infants: is world trusting/do i not trust: do they take care of me?
integrity vs. despair: have i met my goals, am i the person i wanted to be?
am i happy with how i lived my life?

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21
Q

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

A 
Basic trust v. mistrust
Birth to 1 year
Autonomy v. shame/doubt
1–3 years
Initiative v. guilt
3–6 years
Industry v. inferiority
6–11 years
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22
Q

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

A 
Identity v. role confusion
Adolescence
Intimacy v. isolation
Early adulthood
Generativity v. stagnation
Middle adulthood
Integrity v. despair
Late adulthood
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23
Q

Behaviourism & Social Learning

A

unconsciousness can’t be measured

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24
Q

Classical Conditioning

A

Stimulus– response

classical conditioning: condition child to be afraid

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25
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

Reinforcers and punishments

operant: change behaviour with reinforcement

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26
Q

Social Learning

A

Modelling
social learning: can’t constantly punish/reinforce
simply by watching other adults behave
can learn complex behaviours with one instance

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27
Q

Piaget: Cognitive-Developmental Theory

A

Children actively construct knowledge.!
• Adaptation to environment is made in order to achieve equilibrium.!
• All children move through four broad stages.

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28
Q

Piaget: Cognitive-Developmental Theory

A

there is still an inner mental state
gathering info through experiences to make sense of world - seeking equillibrium
intermental life + outside world
change intermental world

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29
Q

Piaget’s Stages

A

Sensorimotor!sensorimotor: gathering info with senses

• Preoperational!preoperational: intermental representation, but can’t mold thoughts

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30
Q

Piaget’s Stages

A
  • Concrete operational!concrete: shape thoughts, but more concretely
  • Formal operational formal: understand world in abstract ways, possibilities
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31
Q

Information Processing Theory

A

Human brain is symbol-manipulating system!
input equals experiences
output equals behavioural response
Development seen as continuously changing, not formal stages

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32
Q

Information Processing Theory

A

info, wm, ltm, behaviour
always same system, but slightly more efficient
same structure, can do more because of improvement in speed + efficiency

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33
Q

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience

A

Study of relationships between !
• changes in the brain!
• development of cognition, behaviour!

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34
Q

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience

A
  • Brings together researchers from!
  • psychology! • biology!
  • neuroscience! • medicine
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35
Q

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience

A

functional, structural
infantile amnesia: no memory of infancy-3
no coherent sense of self - hard to make sense of memories
recent study: diff in brain - neurogenesis
younger than 3: producing neurons at rapid rate
at 3: neurogenesis slows
experiments with rats induced neurogenesis
new neurons, new synapses, gets in way of memories being wired

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36
Q

Ethology

A

Study of adaptive value of behaviour and its evolutionary history!
• critical period!
• sensitive period
how come this behaviour exists - adaptive
attachment: it made sense to bond with parents - stuck around + weren’t killed

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37
Q

Ethology

A

critical period: smaller
sensitive: prolonged - new skill must be learned, we miss it, difficult to learn skills
cats with no visual stimulus in early life, never learn vision
sensitive period of language acquisition

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38
Q

Evolutionary Developmental Psychology

A

Seeks to understand adaptive value of human competencies!
• Studies cognitive, emotional, and social competencies and change with age!
• Expands upon ethology

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39
Q

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

A

Transmission of culture to a new generation!
• values, beliefs, customs, skills! • Social interaction necessary!
• cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society

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40
Q

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

A

by interacting they learn values…

emphasis on social interaction as source of development

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41
Q

Ecological Systems Theory

A

Bronfenbrenner argues that children develop within a system of complex human relationships that encompass immediate environments such as the family and larger environments such as communities
layer of systems of interactions

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42
Q

Ecological Systems Theory

A

Ever Changing

micro: child with family, school, child care
meso: how they interact each other
exo: community services, workplace, friends, neighbours, relatives
macro: culture, customs, laws, values
important: experiences of child are diff

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43
Q

Ecological Systems Theory

A

canada vs. us: mircosystem has similarities

when they get sick: canada values health care - goes to checkup

44
Q

Developmental Periods

A 
Prenatal
Conception to birth
Infancy and toddlerhood
Birth to 2 years
Early childhood
2 to 6 years
45
Q

Developmental Periods

A 
Middle childhood
6 to 11 years
Adolescence
11 to 18 years
Early adulthood
18 to 40 years
Middle adulthood
40 to 65 years
Late adulthood
65 years to death
46
Q

Developmental Periods

A

early stages - 5 diff unique stages
last 80 years - only 3 stages
early on in what adulthood comprises of
we have to understand holistic perspective

47
Q

3 Major Domains of

Development

A

physical, cognitive, emotional/social domains

48
Q

Dynamic Systems

Approach

A

can’t have one without the other

all affect each other, as we get older, they get more dependent on each other

49
Q

Influences on

Development

A 
• Age-graded!
• History-graded! • Nonnormative
age-graded: puberty, happens for everyone roughly at same age
history: if born at specific time period
nonnormative: divorce, no specific age
50
Q

Nature or Nurture

A

The extent the developing person’s abilities, interests, and personality are determined by biological or evolutionary influences or by environmental influences

51
Q

Stability versus Plasticity (change)

A

To what extent do individuals stay unchanged through their lives cognitively, emotionally, and socially, or to what extent do individuals change, adapt or emerge from the environment

52
Q

Stability versus Plasticity (change)

A

personality - lean toward stability
if you can change - plasticity
what stays the same + what changes as we age

53
Q

Activity versus Passivity

A

Organismic versus Mechanistic
• People are active or passive in exploring the world
free will

54
Q

Continuity versus Discontinuity

A

Development as a continuous process of growth and change or development as discontinuous

55
Q

Continuity versus Discontinuity

A

do we start with same structure + improve in efficiency?
are there stages? - discontinuous
lifespan: continuous
piaget: discontinuous

56
Q

Individual Variability

A

Does one course of development characterize all people, or are there many possible courses?
what better represents development: 1 lifecourse/multiple

57
Q

Why Should We Learn About Research Strategies?

A

Helps us separate dependable information from misleading results. !
Individuals who understand research can build bridges between research and practice. !
media does poor job of describing limits + method
understanding research - make decisions on application

58
Q

Common Research Methods

A

way of gathering info

design: how to organize info, structure gathering

59
Q

Casual observations

A

Biased
it happens as byproduct of method
haphazard observation - casual

60
Q

Systematic observations

A

observations done in such a way to eliminate or reduce bias.
increases chances of equal observation
coding

61
Q

decision rules

A

procedures set in place before observation occurs

62
Q

Naturalistic Observation

A

In the “field,” or natural environment, where behaviour happens
not every person has equal opportunity to exhibit behaviour you want to see
great external validity, but takes a long time for it to happen

63
Q

Structured Observations

A

Laboratory situation set up to evoke behaviour of interest
All participants have equal chance to display behaviour
perspective taking in imaginary play: cops + robbers
do they see themself as them or batman
me batman: more active areas for imagination

64
Q

Limitations of 
 Systematic Observation: Observer Influence

A

Participants may react in unnatural ways.
– Can be minimized
minimized with cameras

65
Q

Limitations of 
 Systematic Observation: Observer Bias

A

Observers record what they expect, rather than what really happens.
limit through double blind + through training

66
Q

Sources of self-reports

A

Children
Family members
Teachers and peers
interested in child, but can talk to many ppl about child
they take a long time to respond to self report
train researchers to be patient

67
Q

Sources of self-reports

A 
must be phrased in child friendly manner
difficulty in phrasing answers
have to be upbeat
train in probing
bored really easily
just as likely to lie as adults
68
Q

Clinical Interview

A

Flexible, conversational style with the aim of probing for the participant’s point of view.
Allows participants to express their thoughts and feelings in their own words.
Can yield a large amount of information in a brief period of time.

69
Q

Clinical Interview

A

open ended interview style

allows you to ask based on responses

70
Q

Limitations of
 Clinical Interviews

A 
Accuracy of participants’ expressions
Distortions in participants’ – Recall
– Global Judgments
Flexibility may make
responses too varied
71
Q

Limitations of
 Clinical Interviews

A

curtail answers
recall: how worried were you as a parent when ebola spread?
response may change later on: recall shaped by current view of reality
global judgements: broader the question, less useful
ask about specific behaviour
difficult to compare responses between participants

72
Q

Structured Interview

A

Each participant is asked the same questions in the same way

May use questionnaires, get answers from groups

73
Q

Limitations of
 Structured Interviews

A

Do not yield the same depth as clinical interviews
Distortions in participants’ – Recall
– Judgments
just as susceptible to distortions

74
Q

Psychophysiological Methods

A

Measure the relationship between physiological processes and behaviour.!
How does the structure of the central nervous system contribute to development?!

75
Q

Psychophysiological Methods

A

Inferring the perceptions, thoughts, and emotions of infants and young children, who cannot report their psychological experience directly
.young children who can’t verbalize

76
Q

Measures of autonomic nervous system activity

A

Heart rate Blood pressure Respiration Pupil dilation
Stress hormones
out of our control, but susceptible to psychological state
heart rate decrease to new stimuli, attending to new stimuli
infer what they are doing based on these markers

77
Q

Methods of Measuring Brain Functioning

A

Measures of electrical activity! Electroencephalogram (EEG)!

Neuroimaging techniques:!

78
Q

Methods of Measuring Brain Functioning

A

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)! Position emission tomography (PET)! Near-infrared optical topography (NIROT)

79
Q

Methods of Measuring Brain Functioning

A

eeg: do tasks while hooked up to see brain activity
neuroimaging: structure + functions

80
Q

Choosing the correct Measure

A

Some measures are not well suited for research with children.
is the measurement appropriate with the age group

81
Q

Near-infrared optical topography (NIROT)

A

Can be used on very young babies as they sit on their parent’s lap.!
NIROT is limited to examining the functioning of the cerebral cortex.

82
Q

Limitations of Psychophysiological methods

A

Interpreting the data! Extraneous factors!
external validity
lots of noise: lots of decisions on what is meaningful
extraneous: hunger, boredom, inattentiveness, irritable
have to time studies
are they valid in the real world

83
Q

Clinical/Case Study Method

A 
Brings together a wide range of information on one individual/ group
Interviews
– Observations
– Test scores
– Psychophysiological measures
84
Q

Case Study Method: Strengths

A

Detailed insights into factors affecting development
– Study of uncommon individuals
lots of info

85
Q

Case Study Method: Limitations

A

Generalizability

not sure if results apply to other children

86
Q

Correlational Research

A

A research design that permits investigators to establish relationships among variables as well as the strength of those relationships.
Magnitude
Size of the number between 0 and 1
Closer to one (positive or negative) is a stronger relationship

87
Q

Correlational Research

A

Direction
Indicated by + or - sign
Positive (+): as one variable increases, so does the other
Negative (-): as one variable increase, the other decreases

88
Q

Correlational Research

A

just collect them, no manipulation
children who watch sesame street had better cognitive performance + school
separate data points collected + tested for a correlation
no causation

89
Q

Experiments

A

An experiment is a procedure in which researchers systematically manipulate and observe elements of a situation (i.e., variables) to answer their research question.
Experimental and control groups
Experimental group is exposed to proposed causative factor Control group is not exposed to proposed causative factor

90
Q

Experiments

A

Independent variables
Experimenter changes, or manipulates
Expected to cause changes in another variable Dependent variables
Experimenter measures, but does not manipulate
Expected to be influenced by the independent variable

91
Q

Field Experiment

A

Use rare opportunities for random assignment in natural settings
field: empathetic, caring behaviours of teacher could be passed on
half children more empathetic teacher/half normal interaction
observe whether kids passed toys to new baby
caring teacher = more likely to help

92
Q

Natural Experiment (Quasi-experiment)

A

Compare differences in treatment that already exist
Groups chosen to match characteristics as much as possible
natural: no money/not feasable
measured stress in 2 diff cities
cannot say cause - not enough control

93
Q

Longitudinal

A

Same participants studied repeatedly at
different ages.
literacy: track reading ability yearly
cohort: more similar to each other than others

94
Q

Longitudinal Design

A

Advantages
Permits study of common patterns and individual differences in development and relationships between early and later events and behaviours.!
Problems!
Age-related changes may be distorted because of biased sampling, selective attrition, practice effects, and cohort effects.!

95
Q

Longitudinal Design

A

Cohort effect: observed differences between ages that are due to cultural-historical differences and not developmental differences.!
Theoretical and methodological changes in the field can make findings obsolete.
how do they change after a year
more/less change at specific time?

96
Q

Longitudinal Design

A

bias sampling: lots of commitment
selective attrition: ppl drop out which reduce generalizability
only certain ppl participate in this work
findings can be obsolete because it takes many years

97
Q

Cross-sectional

A

People of differing ages all studied at
the same time.
don’t wanna invest time + money
compare cohorts

98
Q

Cross-Sectional Design

A 
Advantages
Efficient !
Not plagued by selective attrition, practice effects, or theoretical and methodological changes in the field!
less time
1 measurement
99
Q

Cross-Sectional Design

A

Problems
Does not permit study of individual developmental trends
Age difference may be distorted because of cohort effects
can’t track individual patterns of change
is it the teacher, curriculum?

100
Q

Sequential

A

Same groups of different-aged people
studied repeatedly as they change ages.
compare gr. 3s in diff years, if same then no cohort effects

101
Q

Sequential Design

A

Advantages
When the design includes longitudinal sequences, permits both longitudinal and cross-sectional comparisons !
Reveals cohort effects !
Permits tracking of age-related changes more effectively than the longitudinal design!

102
Q

Sequential Design

A

Problems
May have the same problems as the longitudinal and cross-sectional strategies, but the design itself helps identify difficulties
identify them, but doesn’t eliminate cohort effects

103
Q

Microgenetic

A

Same participants studied repeatedly over a short period as they master a task or learn36 a skill.
in previous studies: snapshot of changes
short period
see whole progression of change

104
Q

Microgenetic Design

A

Criteria
Observation period spans the entirety of change!
Frequency of observation should match the rate of change!
Advantage
Offers insights into how change occurs!

105
Q

Microgenetic Design

A

Problems
Requires intensive study of participants’ moment-by-moment behaviours ! The time required for participants to change is difficult to anticipate! Practice effects may distort developmental trends
have to begin before change
cannot miss change
how do you know when to start + stop
must first do a cross-sectional study
have to rely on theory on how frequently to collect data

106
Q

Combining Experimental and Developmental Designs

A

compare where they end up

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