PSY210: 6. Physical and Cognitive Development in Adolescence Flashcards
Adolescence
period extending from onset of puberty to early adulthood betw 12 + 20
Puberty: reproductive system matures
roughly begins around puberty, not dependent on puberty
cultural construct - fuzzy boundaries
Adolescence: A Brief History in Ancient Times
Plato - infancy, 0-6/7, childhood 6/7-12, 3rd stage in life
Serious education can begin
learn sports, instruments
when children are capable of learning
Adolescence: A Brief History
Aristotle - children are driven by impulses
Only by the end of adolescence does reason establish a firm control
as teens we learn how to be rational
high school - structured differently, in depth material, abstract
elementary - diff topics + activities to get general idea
Adolescence: A Brief History - from early christian times through the middle ages
Saint Augustine - lived an impulsive, excessive lifestyle until his conversion to Christianity
Argued Christian morality provides means by which reason can rule over passion
time to curtail impulse + immorality
Adolescence: A Brief History - from early christian times through the middle ages
Children’s Crusades - evidence that adolescence was viewed as a period of innocence
children to holy land in hopes that child’s innocence will convince them to share Jerusalem - didn’t work - they were teens
we see them as still innocent
Adolescence: A Brief History - from 1500 to 1890
Life-cycle service - period in late teens + 20s young people engage in domestic service, farm service/apprenticeships in various trades and crafts
18th -19th centuries: young people seen as social problem
In response - social institutions were created, time to acquire a skill, trades they were working in ceased to exist
would leave homes, couldn’t find jobs
YMCA: proliferation of adolescents, need something for them to do
The Age of Adolescence 1890 to 1920
Enactment of laws restricting child labor - ready source of labour: cheap, easily heal, lots of them
adolescents formerly employed are now unemployed
The Age of Adolescence 1890 to 1920
New requirements for children to attend secondary school - laws came at various times
Development of the field of adolescence as an area of scholarly study - G. Stanley Hall coined term
G. Stanley Hall: Theory of Recapitulation
time of “storm and stress”
In contrast, most adolescents experience healthy social + emotional development
based off of Darwin - reenactment of human evolution
tumultuous time, moodiness, upheaval - wars, times of upheaval
abandoned theory
seen as a relatively calm time in development
Physical Development
Early: 11–12 to 14 years - Rapid pubertal change, moving ever younger, going through puberty
younger + younger due to nutrition, better fed + reliable than in the past
Physical Development
Middle: 14 to 16 years - Puberty nearly complete
Late: 16 to 18 years - Full adult appearance, Anticipation of adult roles, ready to work, take on adult activities
Physical Development in Adolescence
Puberty - reproductive systems mature
Endocrine system - glands that release hormones into blood stream, which affect development
Path of puberty: Hypothalamus > Pituitary Gland and Gonadotropin > Gonads and Sex Hormones
Physical Development in Adolescence
release 2 years before signs of puberty seen
pituitary release Gonadotropin - sex hormones
body has met threshold of body fat - has sufficient + reliable nutrition to start
increase in child obesity - early onset puberty more common
children need baby fat to grow
Hormonal Changes in Puberty
Growth hormone + thyroxine increase age 8–9
Estrogens: more in girls, adrenal estrogens
Androgens: more in boys. testosterone
both released in development of boys + girls, only difference is proportions
Physical Growth
result of increased levels of sex hormones, there is drastic change in rate of physical growth
Adolescent growth spurt: Peak height velocity - fastest growth - cm/year
Asynchronicity: gr. 5-7: girls start growing taller than boys
boys start catching up + surpassing
Sex Differences in Body Growth in Adolescence
Boys Girls
Growth spurt starts age 121⁄2 starts age 10
Proportions shoulders broaden hips broaden
longer legs
Muscle–fat gain more muscle, gain more fat
makeup aerobic efficiency
testosterone causes development of lungs
girls need fat for growth
Adolescent Brain Development
Pruning continues: in PFC (efficient network), quick access
Growth and myelination speed up: frontal lobes + cerebellum - increase speed
Neurotransmitter response changes
Frontal lobes: Strengthen connections among regions
Adolescent Brain Development
More sensitive to excitatory messages: brain more responsive to neurotransmitter - more sensitive to excitatory signals
Cognitive advances: attention, planning integrating, information, self-regulation
Adolescent Brain Development
Intensifies reactions to stress: pleasure, novelty
responsiveness of neurotransmitters
able to make sense of small amount of info
responds more strongly to dopamine - why they seek pleasure + feel more stressed
Reactions to Puberty: Early and late maturing girls
Early - more negative effects due to cultural views about appearance + changing peer groups
starts interacting with her as an adult - thinking that they are more culturally or cognitively
interacting with older peers - start drinking, having sex
earlier you hit it, the shorter their peak is
harder to be thin for short ppl, valued early on + discarded after
Reactions to Puberty: Early and late maturing girls
Late - more teasing from peers for a period of time
Most negative effects dissipate by adulthood
not overwhelming teasing, but end up conforming on
Reactions to Puberty: Early and late maturing boys
Early - both positive and negative effects
positive - more muscle mass, conforming to society ideals
better at sports, but start hanging out with older ppl - early sexual activity, substance abuse
Late - only negative effects
not as good as sports, want to be mature so they act older - substance abuse
Reactions to Puberty: Girls
Surprised about how early it happens, More positive than in past - more common that they are informed
Preparation, information help
Father’s involvement helps
Ethnic variations
Reactions to Puberty: Boys
Mixed reactions, Sooner than expected
Preparation helps
Could benefit from telling people
most boys have no idea what’s going on
Sleep Habits in Adolescence
Still need almost as much sleep, but go to bed later
biological “phase delay” - circadian rhythm - more alert later in the evening
social habits
sleeping far less than they need to
Lack of sleep impairs regulation of attention,
emotion
lower achievement: linked to poor performance, frontal lobe doesn’t have as much nutrients
mood problems: more cranky
high-risk behaviours
missing about 3-4 hours from recommended alottment of sleep
schools in europe should start later
Adolescent Moodiness
More negative life events - responsibilities, pressure
not actually moodier, just appropriately responding to a somewhat difficult time of development
get into university, form friendships, romantic relationship, get a job
reacting appropriately to new experiences
Adolescent Moodiness
Stronger responses: more excitatory - stronger positive/negative emotion, greater anxiety
Mood swings
related to daily events
cultural scripts
Adolescent Emotions Across the Week
if truly moody, we wouldn’t see a pattern
respond more strongly, but not that they’re moody
Eating Disorders
Severe dieting strong indicator, fixation on weight
Family relationships
Cultural pressure
anorexia nervosa
starve out of fear of getting fat, difficult to treat, causes anxiety
Eating Disorders
bulimia nervosa: strict diet and exercise, then binge
+ purge - vomitting causes deterioration of teeth, esophagus, heartburn, can’t control vomitting, more common, easier to treat
Compulsive Exercise: Drive for thinness, perfectionism - more common in men
1/10 for anorexia/bulimia, compulsive exercise increase due to changing ideal body types in society
Adolescent Sexuality
North American attitudes restrictive: media contradicts family messages - everybody is having it + it is awesome
family messages are the opposite - lack of discussion + rejection of sexuality
find it awkward to talk to them especially if they want specifics
Adolescent Sexuality
conservative when interacting with adolescents
abstinence programs
more liberal over past 40 years
most say premarital sex OK for committed partners
Adolescent Sexuality
Activity matches attitudes: rates declining since 1990s, few partners
decline for youngest age group, in line with current attitudes
more accepting, only when you’re ready
very few have multiple sexual partners
Sexually Active Adolescents
individuals in late is more acceptable
girls tend to prefer older men, girls are ready at an earlier age for sex
Sex Differences in Body Growth in Adolescence
Boys Girls Growth spurt starts age 121⁄2 starts age 10 Proportions shoulders broaden, longer legs hips broaden Muscle–fat makeup gain more muscle, aerobic efficiency gain more fat testosterone causes development of lungs girls need fat for growth
Adolescent Contraceptive Use
Recent increase in use
But many Americans, Canadians do not use
Reasons for not using:
concern about image: condoms are for sailors + whores - perception
adolescent risk-taking: more likely to experience heightened emotion - panning isn’t fully developed
Adolescent Contraceptive Use
social environment: expected to have sex + condom wasn’t available
forced intercourse
unrealistic about consequences: don’t realize likelihood of becoming pregnant >50%, decreases as we get older
Characteristics of Sexually Active Adolescents
Personal: Early puberty
Tendency to violate norms: can be a form of acting out
Little religious involvement: religious involvement linked to decreased sexual activity
churches have youth groups adolescents can turn to - open discussions about sex
Family: Step, single-parent, or large family
Characteristics of Sexually Active Adolescents
Weak parental monitoring, parent–child communication - not talking about sex
Peer: hanging out with older peer group, Sexually active
tend to have older siblings that are sexually active
Educational: Poor school performance
Low educational goals: do not expect to do well, not thinking about long term consequences
Talking to Adolescents About Sex
Foster open communication: more likely to be prepared to make good decisions
tell children they should feel open to ask you questions, it can be an ongoing discussion
Use correct terms: demonstrate that you take it seriously, respect discussion
Talking to Adolescents About Sex
Listen, discuss, collaborate: listen first, let them talk about it
Think before talking: think about your approach
Keep conversations going
Internet can be a hazardous educator: they are going to learn about it from peers + internet
more misogynist view + extreme sexual practices as normal
Sexual Orientation
2 - 3% identify as lesbian, gay, or bisexual
Genetic Basis: increased estrogen exposure in prenatal
Maternal heredity: common genetic marker
Stereotypes: tend to act counter-gender early on
fashion - reflection of attitudes toward choice
lower than adults, process of discovering sexuality
individuals are born homosexual
Sequence of Coming Out
Feeling different: ages 6–12: seemed like feelings + attitudes didn’t align, liking gender deviant behaviour
Confusion: ages 11–15: retrospective study - don’t actually differ, find meaning in behaviours
expected to be sexually attractive to girls, engage hetero dating
Sequence of Coming Out
Self-acceptance
timing depends on level of support and culture
self identify as homosexual - report on experience of coming outtiming
Piaget’s Theory: Formal Operational Stage
Hypothetico-deductive reasoning
deducing hypotheses from general theory: thinking of everything possible + narrowing down to what is probable
creating hypothesis of reality + testing them
more able to think like a scientist
pendulum problem: explain speed with varying weights - children start testing, trial + error
Piaget’s Theory: Formal Operational Stage
Propositional thought:adolescents start abstractly - think hypothetically
evaluating the logic of verbal propositions - one true, one false statement - develops in adolescents
children have difficulty evaluating if, then statements
begins + continues to develop as propositions become more complex
Follow-Up Research on Formal Operational Thought
School-age children start developing abstract thinking skills
problems with propositional thinking: logical necessity
Formal operations may not be universal: training, context contribute
often fall back on easier thinkingadults still have trouble with propositions - heuristics
Follow-Up Research on Formal Operational Thought
schooling essential factor
possible that not everybody reaches formal operations
cultures without formal schooling - fail formal operation tasks
formal education centred around formal operations
Information-Processing Improvements in Adolescence
Attention, Inhibition, Memory strategies, Knowledge, Metacognition, Cognitive self-regulation, Processing capacity, Speed of thinking
small qualitative improvements in these areas
Scientific Reasoning
Coordinating theory with evidence
Improves with age: from childhood through adulthood, individuals vary, ability to postulate
Contributing factors: working memory capacity, exposure to complex problems, metacognitive understanding, open-mindedness
Scientific Reasoning
Kuhn: mouse in house - big/small, build a mini mouse house
in both circumstances of big door, pellet would be gone
if small door, then pellet would be there if the mouse was big
children fixated on consequence - don’t like absence of effect, like the big door circumstances
Consequences of Abstract Thought: Self-consciousness and self-focusing
imaginary audience: sensitivity to criticism
think about themselves in deep detail, think abstractly, most frequent experience
reflect on self, if it’s salient to you, then it must be obvious to everyone else because it’s all you can think about
explains sensitivity to criticism
Consequences of Abstract Thought
Piaget: adolescent egocentrism
personal fable - think they are unique/special ‘cause they think of their own experiences
Idealism and criticism: can postulate ideal world - idealism - world as it could be
ideal world doesn’t match their reality - angst
Consequences of Abstract Thought: Planning and decision making
inexperience
overwhelming options
decision making - no experience to know which option is the best - no practical knowledge
School & Adolescence: A Series of Transitions
Grades decline with each transition: higher standards, less supportive teaching–learning environment
new experiences, new environment, new expectations
performance drops = lower self esteem
School & Adolescence: A Series of Transitions
Lower self-esteem: girls more than boys
girls entering puberty - initial drop in self-esteem
increase in truancy (skipping) + problem behaviours
truancy + problem behaviour increases even in well adjusted student
School Transitions and Students with Problems
academic problems + mental health problems
mental health problems don’t increase in problem behaviours
if they have both issues, might consider increased monitoring
Helping Adolescents Adjust to School Transitions
Parental involvement, monitoring: informed, but not to the point of excess - still want them to self govern
Smaller units within schools: groups that they can join - small unit you have contact with
Homeroom teacher relationships: protective, monitor your performance
Helping Adolescents Adjust to School Transitions
Classes with familiar peers: help them pay attention, talk about assignments with
Minimize competition, treatment by ability at school: focus on outcomes - test score
not mastery oriented, teaching them learned helplessness
Supporting Academic Achievement
Child-rearing practices:
authoritative - joint decision making: gives adolescent feelings of competence
Parent–school partnerships: supportive of school decisions
Supporting Academic Achievement
School characteristics:
classroom learning experiences, teaching, tracking: in US, greater issue of more private schools - good teachers
tracking: telling kids 14-15 decide rest of life (vocational or university track)
Supporting Academic Achievement
Peer influences: value high achievement
Employment schedule: vocational education
valuing education = greater performance
negative betw employment + grades - less time to devote to studies
Scientific Reasoning
Coordinating theory with evidence
Improves with age: from childhood through adulthood, individuals vary
Contributing factors: working memory capacity, exposure to complex problems, metacognitive understanding, open-mindedness
coordinate theory with evidence
ability to postulate, improves in adolescence
Dropout Prevention Strategies
Remedial instruction
High-quality vocational training
Personalized counselling
address factors in students’ lives outside school
usually has other issues that results in them dropping out
Extracurricular activities
Sports and Recreation
Benefits of Extracurricular Activities
Academic performance Social skills, peer acceptance Self-esteem, confidence Less antisocial behaviour Improved family relationships
Benefits of Extracurricular Activities
decreases likelihood of dropping out - give them reason to like school
when getting rid of extracurriculars increased drop out rate
cut suicide rate in half because they give them a reason to live
Adolescent Brain Development
Pruning continues Growth and myelination speed up. Neurotransmitter response changes Frontal lobes Strengthen connections among regions More sensitive to excitatory messages
Adolescent Brain Development
Cognitive advances attention
planning integrating information self-regulation
Intensifies reactions to stress
! pleasure, novelty
responsiveness of neurotransmitters
pruning: in PFC (efficient network), quick access
myelination: frontal lobes + cerebellum - increase speed
Adolescent Brain Development
brain more responsive to neurotransmitter - more sensitive to excitatory signals
able to make sense of small amount of info
responds more strongly to dopamine - why they seek pleasure + feel more stressed
Reactions to Puberty
Early and late maturing girls
Early - more negative effects due to cultural views about appearance and changing peer groups
Late - experience more teasing from peers for a period of time
Most negative effects dissipate by adulthood
Reactions to Puberty
starts interacting with her as an adult - thinking that they are more culturally or cognitively
interacting with older peer groups - start drinking, having sex
earlier you hit it, the shorter their peak is
harder to be thin for short ppl, valued early on + discarded after
late: not overwhelming teasing, but end up conforming on
Reactions to Puberty: Early and late maturing boys
Early - both positive and negative effects • Late - only negative effects
early: positive - more muscle mass, conforming to society ideals
better at sports, but start hanging out with older ppl - early sexual activity, substance abuse
late: not as good as sports, want to be mature so they act older - substance abuse
Reactions to Puberty: Girls
Surprise ! More positive than in past ! Preparation, information help ! Father’s involvement helps ! Ethnic variations surprised about how early it happens, more common that they are informed
Reactions to Puberty
Boys ! Mixed reactions ! Sooner than expected ! Preparation helps ! Could benefit from telling people most boys have no idea what’s going on
Sleep Habits in
Adolescence
Still need almost as much sleep, but go to bed later
! biological “phase delay”
! social habits
stay up later - phase delay - circadian rhythm - more alert later in the evening
sleeping far less than they need to, need just as much sleep as children
Lack of sleep impairs regulation of attention,
emotion
! lower achievement
! mood problems
! high-risk behaviours
missing about 3-4 hours from recommended alottment of sleep
linked to poor performance, frontal lobe doesn’t have as much nutrients
more cranky, schools in europe should start later
Adolescent Moodiness
More negative life events Stronger responses Mood swings ! related to daily events ! cultural scripts more excitatory - stronger positive/negative emotion, greater anxiety
Adolescent Moodiness
more moody: not actually moodier, just appropriately responding to a somewhat difficult time of development
more negative events - more responsibilities, more pressure
get into university, form friendships, romantic relationship, get a job
reacting appropriately to new experiences
Adolescent Emotions Across the Week
if truly moody, we wouldn’t see a pattern
respond more strongly, but not that they’re moody
Eating Disorders
Severe dieting strong indicator Family relationships
Cultural pressure
! anorexia nervosa
“ starve out of fear of getting fat “ difficult to treat
anorexia: do not eat, phobia of getting fat, avoid eating, causes anxiety
Eating Disorders
! bulimia nervosa
“ strict diet and exercise, then binge
and purge
“ more common, easier to treat
! Compulsive Exercise
“ Drive for thinness, perfectionism
bulimia: eat then vomit, drive for thinness, they still want to eat - vomitting causes deterioration of teeth, esophagus, heartburn, can’t control vomitting
compulsive exercise: more common in men, drive for thinness + perfectionism. want perfect body. undereat
fixation on weight
1/10 for anorexia/bulimia, compulsive exercise increase due to changing ideal body types in society
Adolescent Sexuality
orth American attitudes restrictive ! media contradicts family messages
! abstinence programs
! more liberal over past 40 years
! most say premarital sex OK for committed partners
Adolescent Sexuality
message: everybody is having it + it is awesome
family messages are the opposite - lack of discussion + rejection of sexuality
find it awkward to talk to them especially if they want specifics
conservative when interacting with adolescents
attitudes becoming more liberal
Adolescent Sexuality
Activity matches attitudes ! rates declining since 1990s ! few partners
decline for youngest age group, in line with current attitudes
more accepting, only when you’re ready
very few have multiple sexual partners
Sexually Active
Adolescents
individuals in late is more acceptable
girls tend to prefer older men, girls are ready at an earlier age for sex
Sexual Activity: Canada
significant reduction betw 1997-2005 in the youngest demographic
not as much of a concern as we think
Adolescent Contraceptive Use
Recent increase in use But many Americans, Canadians do not use Reasons for not using: ! concern about image ! adolescent risk-taking ! social environment
Adolescent Contraceptive Use
! forced intercourse
! unrealistic about consequences
condoms are for sailors + whores - perception
more likely to experience heightened emotion - panning isn’t fully developed
expected to have sex + condom wasn’t available
don’t realize likelihood of becoming pregnant >50%, decreases as we get older
Characteristics of Sexually Active Adolescents
Personal Early puberty Tendency to violate norms Little religious involvement Family Step, single-parent, or large family " Weak parental monitoring, parent–child communication Peer Sexually active friends or siblings Educational Poor school performance Low educational goals
Characteristics of Sexually Active Adolescents
hanging out with older peer group, engage in mature activities
can be a form of acting out, religious involvement linked to decreased sexual activity
churches have youth groups adolescents can turn to - open discussions about sex
less communication - not talking about sex
tend to have older siblings that are sexually active
do bad at school, do not expect to do well, not thinking about long term consequences
Benefits of Extracurricular Activities
decreases likelihood of dropping out - give them reason to like school
when getting rid of extracurriculars increased drop out rate
cut suicide rate in half because they give them a reason to live
Talking to Adolescents About Sex
# Foster open communication. # Use correct terms. # Listen, discuss, collaborate. # Think before talking. # Keep conversations going. # The Internet can be a hazardous educator.
Talking to Adolescents About Sex
more likely to be prepared to make good decisions
tell children they should feel open to ask you questions, it can be an ongoing discussion
using correct terms - demonstrate that you take it seriously, respect discussion
listen first, let them talk about it, think about your approach
they are going to learn about it from peers + internet
more misogynist view + extreme sexual practices as normal
Sequence of Coming Out
Feeling different ages 6–12 Confusion ages 11–15 Self-acceptance timing varies self identify as homosexual - report on experience of coming out
Sequence of Coming Out
seemed like feelings + attitudes didn’t align, liking gender deviant behaviour
retrospective study - don’t actually differ, find meaning in behaviours
expected to be sexually attractive to girls, engage hetero dating
timing depends on level of support and culture
Piaget’s Theory: Formal Operational Stage
Hypothetico-deductive reasoning
deducing hypotheses from a general theory
pendulum problem Propositional thought
! evaluating the logic of verbal propositions
thinking of everything possible + narrowing down to what is probable
creating hypothesis of reality + testing them
more able to think like a scientist
Piaget’s Theory: Formal Operational Stage
pendulum task: explain speed with varying weights - children start testing, trial + error
adolescents start abstractly - think hypothetically
proposition: evaluate logical statements - one true, one false statement - develops in adolescents
children have difficulty evaluating if, then statements
begins + continues to develop as propositions become more complex
Follow-Up Research on Formal Operational Thought
School-age children start developing abstract thinking skills.
! problems with propositional thinking !logical necessity
Formal operations may not be universal. ! training, context contribute
! often fall back on easier thinking
! schooling essential factor
cannot work with 3 variables
adults still have trouble with propositions - heuristics
Follow-Up Research on Formal Operational Thought
possible that not everybody reaches formal operations
cultures without formal schooling - fail formal operation tasks
formal education centred around formal operations - training
Information-Processing Improvements in Adolescence
Attention # Inhibition # Memory strategies # Knowledge # Metacognition # Cognitive self-regulation # Processing capacity # Speed of thinking small qualitative improvements in these areas
Information-Processing Improvements in Adolescence
elaboration more likely to be used
substantial increase in knowledge due to education
metacognition*: evaluate own ideas, question ourselves
regulating heuristical thought, WM adult levels, improvements in frontal lobe - info processing speed
Scientific Reasoning
Coordinating theory with evidence Improves with age
! from childhood through adulthood
! individuals vary Contributing factors:
! working memory capacity
! exposure to complex problems ! metacognitive understanding ! open-mindedness
coordinate theory with evidence
ability to postulate, improves in adolescence
Scientific Reasoning
Kuhn: mouse in house - big/small, build a mini mouse house
pellet in house mouse
we use small door
in both circumstances of big door, pellet would be gone
if small door, then pellet would be there if the mouse was big
children fixated on consequence - don’t like absence of effect
like the big door circumstances
Consequences of Abstract Thought
Self-consciousness and self-focusing ! imaginary audience
!sensitivity to criticism ! personal fable
Idealism and criticism Planning and decision making
! inexperience
! overwhelming options
Consequences of Abstract Thought
tested in school for complex problems not fixated improve metacognitive processes more self conscious: think about themselves in deep detail, think abstractly, most frequent experience Piaget: adolescent egocentrism Info processing: interesting,
Consequences of Abstract Thought
believe they’re on stage for everyone else
reflect on self, if it’s salient to you, then it must be obvious to everyone else because it’s all you can think about
explains sensitivity to criticism
Piaget: fable - think they are unique/special ‘cause they think of their own experiences
can postulate ideal world - idealism - world as it could be
ideal world doesn’t match their reality - angst
decision making - no experience to know which option is the best - no practical knowledge
School & Adolescence: A Series of Transitions
Grades decline with each transition. ! higher standards ! less supportive teaching– learning environment Lower self-esteem ! girls more than boys
School & Adolescence: A Series of Transitions
performance always drops during points of transition
new experiences, new environment, new expectations
performance drops = lower self esteem
girls entering puberty - initial drop in self-esteem
School Transitions and Students with Problems
increase in truancy (skipping) + problem behaviours
truancy + problem behaviour increases even in well adjusted student
academic problems + mental health problems increase in truancy, but mental health problems don’t increase in problem behaviours
if they have both issues, might consider increased monitoring
Helping Adolescents Adjust to School Transitions
Parental involvement, monitoring Smaller units within schools Homeroom teacher relationships Classes with familiar peers
Minimize competition, treatment by ability at school
informed, but not to the point of excess - still want them to self govern
Helping Adolescents Adjust to School Transitions
groups that they can join - small unit you have contact with
homeroom - protective, monitor your performance
peers: help them pay attention, talk about assignments with
minimize emphasis in competition - focus on outcomes - test score
not mastery oriented, teaching them learned helplessness
Supporting Academic Achievement
Child-rearing practices ! authoritative ! joint decision making ! parent–school partnerships School characteristics ! classroom learning experiences ! teaching ! tracking
Supporting Academic Achievement
Peer influences
! value high achievement
Employment schedule ! vocational education
gives adolescent feelings of competence
partnership: supportive of school decisions
Supporting Academic Achievement
in US, greater issue of more private schools - good teachers
tracking: telling kids 14-15 decide rest of life (vocational or university track)
peer influences: valuing education = greater performance
negative betw employment + grades - less time to devote to studies
High School Dropout Rates
decreased in Canada, higher for boys - opportunity to have high paying labour jobs
has a long standing influence
Dropout Prevention Strategies
Remedial instruction High-quality vocational training Personalized counselling
! address factors in students’ lives outside school
Extracurricular activities
danger of dropping out consider vocational training
usually has other issues that results in them dropping out
Benefits of Extracurricular Activities
Sports and Recreation
Less antisocial behaviour
Improved family relationships
Benefits of Extracurricular Activities
decreases likelihood of dropping out - give them reason to like school
when getting rid of extracurriculars increased drop out rate
cut suicide rate in half because they give them a reason to live
