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psy 260 exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

types of muscles

A
  • skeletal
  • smooth
  • cardiac
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2
Q

skeletal muscles

A

voluntary muscles - motor

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3
Q

smooth muscles

A

glands and organ muscles

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4
Q

cardiac muscles

A

heart

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5
Q

where do motor neurons send axons to ?

A

out of the ventral root

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6
Q

Proprioceptors

A

Awareness of the in muscles and joints ; sensory receptors in the muscle and joints

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7
Q

Golgi tendon

A

senses muscle tension thus relaxing the muscle

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8
Q

do reflexes require the brain to activate? And they travel through the?

A

Reflexes do not require the brain as it first travels through the spinal cord to move from “danger” and then it goes to the brain to process as pain “ow”

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9
Q

how do reflexes thus occur?

A

Muscle spindle senses stretch, causing the muscle to contract

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10
Q

Myasthenia Gravis

A

(severe muscle weakness) immune system attacks cholinergic receptors in the muscle

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11
Q

how is Myasthenia Gravis treated?

A

Treated with drugs that block AChE (AChE breaks down acetylcholine) meaning more acetylcholine in the synapse to be therapeutic with this condition

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12
Q

the action of blocking AChE to allow more acetylcholine in the synapse ; is it an agonist or antagonist action?

A

Antagonist

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13
Q

what are the most common spinal cord injuries ?

A

vehicular crashes and falls

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14
Q

can we heal from spinal cord injuries?

A

yes, the time window to do surgery for a spinal cord injury’s is essential for recovery

other ways to supplement healing would be by our own body and efforts :
- Schwann cells create a physical bridge for reconnecting to the target issue
- astrocytes create scar tissue around injury
- Transplantation of schwann cells or olfactory ensheathing cells; transplanting fetal tissue or stem cells to heal injury
- physical therapy

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15
Q

The cortex

A
  • Motor planning in the prefrontal cortex
  • Movement selection and initiation
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16
Q

The cerebellum

A
  • Controls Ballistic movements are movements that, once triggered, cannot be stopped
  • Sequence and timing of movement
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17
Q

what happens when the cerebellum is damaged?

A

leads to problems with balance, difficulty with motor learning and challenges with timing and sequencing of movements

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18
Q

basal ganglia

A
  1. Made of the caudate (striatum), putamen, and globus pallidus
    - Connections to the motor cortical areas
    - Manages motor function
    - Can excite or inhibit movement
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19
Q

a disorder in the basal ganglia would be?

A

Huntington’s and Parkinson’s disease

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20
Q

The somatotopic organization controls what side of the body?

A

The contralateral body ;opposite side

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21
Q

What is Huntington’s disease ?

A

The degeneration of the basal ganglia due to a genetic mutation of the dominant gene on chromosome 4

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22
Q

Why are some signs of Huntington’s disease appear early on some individuals and some later?

A

Excessive number of trinucleotide repeats (CAG) ; meaning the greater number of repeats, the earlier the onset of symptoms will appear

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23
Q

What do you see in a patient with Huntington’s disease?

A

Eventual slowness of movement, chorea (jerking/excessive movements) immobility, and death

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24
Q

Nancy Wexler

A

Founded the genetic test to determine if the individual is a carrier for the Huntington’s disease mutation

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25
Q

What is Parkinson’s Disease ?

A

Degeneration of striatum (basal ganglia)causing a loss of dopamine leading to the reduction and slowness in movement

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26
Q

How does Parkinson’s Disease look in a patient?

A

Difficulty and slowness of movement
Resting tremor
Muscle rigidity
Loss of facial muscle tone
cognitive impairments
Depression

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27
Q

Treatments for Parkinson’s disease?

A
  • L-dopa → precursor of dopamine
  • Fetal tissue transplantation
  • Stem cell transplantation
  • Surgeries to destroy certain parts of the basal ganglia that - are inhibitory versus excitatory
  • Changing the activity of the basal ganglia by giving deep brain stimulation
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28
Q

Why is L-dopa a controversial treatment?

A

Can stop working or leads to excessive movements; too much or too little dopamine is bad

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29
Q

Circadian rhythms

A

(daily rhythm) ; The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus has intrinsic rhythms that allow them to have the ability to keep time

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30
Q

free running clock

A

about a 24.5 - 25 hour cycle

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31
Q

why would we be out of sync ?

A
  • jet lag
  • shift workers
  • time changes
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32
Q

Adolescents and sleep

A

Circadian rhythm from people shifts from childhood to adolescence, meaning they tend to sleep later

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33
Q

Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)

A

Depression during periods with long dark cycles
Treatment : bright, full spectrum light

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34
Q

how to get back into sync?

A
  • taking melatonin
  • Reduce light (zeitgebers) when sleeping, including phone’s blue light
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35
Q

EGG ; Electroencephalogram

A

Brain waves, desynchronized and synchronized waves

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36
Q

Desynchronized waves

A

Small amplitude waves meaning lots of messages are being processed in the brain

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37
Q

Synchronized waves

A

Large amplitude waves, meaning not a lot of messages are being processed in the brain

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38
Q

EMG ; electromyography

A

Muscle tone

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39
Q

EOG : Electro-oculogram

A

Eye movements

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40
Q

Awake and REM sleep

A
  1. Desynchronized EGG
  2. Rapid eye movement
  3. Paralysis
  4. Penile erection/vaginal secretions
  5. Frequently associated with vivid narrative-like dreams
  6. PGO activity (Pons geniculate occipital)
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41
Q

how long is the sleep cycle?

A

90 minutes

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42
Q

which stage do we spend the most time in ?

A

More time it spent in Sleep Stage 4 (sleep wave ; early in the night)
while later in the night we spend the rest of majority of time in REM sleep (early morning)

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43
Q

Insomia

A

Inadequate sleep ; mainly the cause of insomnia is drug dependency ; having to take more and more medication to fall asleep

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44
Q

Sleep Apnea

A

Abstraction in the airway, gasping for air during the night

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45
Q

Narcolepsy

A

Abnormalities in the neurochemical orexin (hypocretin)
; characterized by REM Sleep

46
Q

Catalepsy

A

Losing all muscle tone and paralyze for a couple of minutes due to a trigger (laughing, crying, exitement,etc.)

47
Q

Sleep paralysis

A

paralyzed when they wake up or when they’re about to fall asleep may include hallucinations

48
Q

in most animals, NOT HUMANS, pheromones are detected by the

A

vemeronasal organ

49
Q

in humans , the “pheromones” we smell would be perceived through?

A

Olfactory receptors

50
Q

Rem Sleep Disorder

A

Physically acting out dreams due to this disorder, when the individual is sleeping because it won’t lose muscle tone

51
Q

Slow-wave sleep disorder

A

includes bed-wetting, night terrors, sleepwalking

52
Q

Sleep beauty syndrome (Kleine-Levin) Syndrome

A

sleeping for hours, days, weeks, or even months; rare disorder as it affects 1 in a million due to a dysfunction of the thalamus and/or hypothalamus
- most common in teenage boys
- no treatment

53
Q

why do we sleep?

A
  1. Energy conservation
  2. Predator avoidance
  3. Body Restoration
  4. Memory consolidation
  5. Removal of “garbage” and toxins
54
Q

What is one of the things the brain does when asleep and, in a way, prevents Alzheimer’s disease?

A

The cerebral spinal fluid will clear out the brain from toxins as the brain does not have a lymphatic system to clear it out like the rest of the body ; this is called the Glymphatic system ; main thing cleared out during this process is Amyloid beta → excessive buildup causes amyloid plaque in the brain

55
Q

Effects of sleep deprivation

A

Can affect mood, cognitive abilities, poor memory, increased impulsiveness, poor judgment
Can lead to hallucinations
Sleep longer the next night, but not catching up (more REM and stage 4 sleep)

56
Q

Chronic sleep deprivation is associated with

A

Increased weight
Type 2 diabetes
Cardiovascular diseases
Reduced immune function
Mental health disorders often have disruptions in their sleep

57
Q

REM sleep?

A

Probably involved memory consolidation, but not really understood
Deprived of REM, the sleep cycle will jump right into REM, so it’s shortened

58
Q

Gonads

A

Testes / ovaries

59
Q

Internal sex organs

A

seminal vesicles/uterus, fallopian tubes

60
Q

External sex organs

A

Penis, scrotum/clitoris

61
Q

the importance of the Y chromosome

A

The Y chromosome contains a gene (SRY) that causes the gonads to become testes

62
Q

Mechanoreceptors

A

Sensitive to mechanical or physical movement

ex. free nerve ending in hair follicles

63
Q

thermoreceptors

A

Sensitive to temperature

64
Q

nociceptors

A

sensitive to pain

65
Q

dermatoma

A

skin segment

66
Q

how is sensory information processed?

A

sensory information is received from the dermatome, which travels via the spinal nerve, into the dorsal root into the spinal cord
from there it travels over the contralateral side and to the thalamus
from the thalamus, the sensory information travels to the primary somatosensory cortex on the postcentral gyrus

67
Q

where is the most devotion in the cortical area?

A

most devotion is to the hands and face = sensitive

68
Q

is the cortex plastic?

A

yes! It changes based on experience aka injury

69
Q

how does the cortex change when an injury occurs?

A

When sensory input is lost, like an amputation, the area of the cortex that received sensory input from that missing limb gets taken over by adjacent inputs

70
Q

Phantom limb

A

The sensation that an amputated limb is still present, ; often painful

71
Q

Damage to the somatosensory cortical areas in the parietal cortex leads to

A

Astereognosia

72
Q

Astereognosia

A

Inability to recognize objects by touch
ex. confuses wife’s head with a shirt

73
Q

More damage to posterior regions in the parietal cortex where somatosensory and visual information blend it causes

A

Neglect syndrome

74
Q

Neglect syndrome

A

Neglect half of their body or neglect half of their visual world

75
Q

How is pain sensed?

A

Nociceptors releases neurotransmitter substance P, into the spinal cord
the pain message travels up to the contralateral hemisphere, ending up in both the somatosensory cortex and limbic system

76
Q

Why is the limbic system aware of pain?

A

Limbic system is important for emotion and learning, thus pain is associated with an emotional response like sadness or anger

77
Q

gate theory was coined by?

A

Melzack and Wall

78
Q

gate theory

A

Believed that stimuli can shut the gate, or stop the flow of pain messages

79
Q

how is analgesia produced ?

A

Produced by some factors that are mediated by the release of endorphins that bind into opioid receptors thus reducing pain sensitivity

80
Q

analgesia

A

reduction of pain sensetivity

81
Q

How do we test for analgesia?

A

Naloxone, an antagonist to endorphins (blocks opioid receptors) stops the analgesia effect = meaning that the analgesia was due to the activation of opioid receptors

82
Q

How do we know analgesia did not occur?

A

If you inject a person with naloxone and the factor maintains its analgesic effect meaning the pain was reduced by another mechanism

83
Q

what do motor neurons release?

A

acetycholine

84
Q

Why is proprioception important

A

Because individuals who lose their proprioception will often not move even if their motor system is intact

85
Q

what are two major proprietors

A

muscle spindle and golgi tendon organs

86
Q

Monosynaptic stretch reflex

A

hammer to the knee test, stretching the muscle spindle

87
Q

central pattern generators

A

Circuits that control coordinated movements like walking

88
Q

is motor control contralateral or ipsilateral?

A

Contralateral

89
Q

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)

A

Motor weakness, which progresses in losing all motor functioning, however with cognitive abilities intact

90
Q

zeitebergs

A

Environmental cues like light and other stimuli that entertain our circadian rhythm

91
Q

what is sleep?

A

a behaivor

92
Q

what do we taste?

A

sweet
sour
salty
bitter
umami

93
Q

how do we sense flavor?

A

taste and smell

94
Q

papillae

A

Bumps in our tongue that have taste buds

95
Q

Each taste buds contains how many taste receptors

A

50-150

96
Q

taste receptors go through a cycle of growth

A

Once every 2 weeks

97
Q

is taste information contralateral or ipsilateral?

A

ipsilateral

98
Q

ageusia

A

loss of taste perception

99
Q

who is a super taster?

A

Sensitive in taste ; taste PTC or PROP

100
Q

Olfactory receptors go through a cycle of growth

A

once a month

101
Q

Gender differences in smell?

A

Women are better at detecting orders; mainly during child bearing years

102
Q

damage to the olfactory system leads to

A

ansomia

103
Q

ansomia

A

losing sense of smell

104
Q

specific anosmias

A

Genetic differences = not sensitive to particular smells
50% of the population has this

105
Q

hyperosmia

A

Drug exposure or something other than damage leading to oversensitive to smells

106
Q

Synesthesia

A

Stimulation of one sensory modality (color blue) is experience when another is simultaneously (hearing the word truck)

107
Q

what is nature’s impulse?

A

to create a female !

108
Q

Y chromosome, the SRY gene is expressed

A

leads to the development of testes

109
Q

2 X chromosomes leads to

A

the development of ovaries

110
Q

how is intersex occurring in humans?

A

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia ; adrenal glands are overgrown at birth and lead to an unusual amounts of adrenal hormones leading to sec organs to be ambiguous

111
Q

the testes release 2 hormones?

A
  1. anti-mullerian hormone
  2. testerone

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