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psy 260 exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

types of muscles

A
  • skeletal
  • smooth
  • cardiac
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2
Q

skeletal muscles

A

voluntary muscles - motor

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3
Q

smooth muscles

A

glands and organ muscles

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4
Q

cardiac muscles

A

heart

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5
Q

where do motor neurons send axons to ?

A

out of the ventral root

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6
Q

Proprioceptors

A

Awareness of the in muscles and joints ; sensory receptors in the muscle and joints

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7
Q

Golgi tendon

A

senses muscle tension thus relaxing the muscle

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8
Q

do reflexes require the brain to activate? And they travel through the?

A

Reflexes do not require the brain as it first travels through the spinal cord to move from “danger” and then it goes to the brain to process as pain “ow”

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9
Q

how do reflexes thus occur?

A

Muscle spindle senses stretch, causing the muscle to contract

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10
Q

Myasthenia Gravis

A

(severe muscle weakness) immune system attacks cholinergic receptors in the muscle

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11
Q

how is Myasthenia Gravis treated?

A

Treated with drugs that block AChE (AChE breaks down acetylcholine) meaning more acetylcholine in the synapse to be therapeutic with this condition

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12
Q

the action of blocking AChE to allow more acetylcholine in the synapse ; is it an agonist or antagonist action?

A

Antagonist

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13
Q

what are the most common spinal cord injuries ?

A

vehicular crashes and falls

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14
Q

can we heal from spinal cord injuries?

A

yes, the time window to do surgery for a spinal cord injury’s is essential for recovery

other ways to supplement healing would be by our own body and efforts :
- Schwann cells create a physical bridge for reconnecting to the target issue
- astrocytes create scar tissue around injury
- Transplantation of schwann cells or olfactory ensheathing cells; transplanting fetal tissue or stem cells to heal injury
- physical therapy

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15
Q

The cortex

A
  • Motor planning in the prefrontal cortex
  • Movement selection and initiation
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16
Q

The cerebellum

A
  • Controls Ballistic movements are movements that, once triggered, cannot be stopped
  • Sequence and timing of movement
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17
Q

what happens when the cerebellum is damaged?

A

leads to problems with balance, difficulty with motor learning and challenges with timing and sequencing of movements

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18
Q

basal ganglia

A
  1. Made of the caudate (striatum), putamen, and globus pallidus
    - Connections to the motor cortical areas
    - Manages motor function
    - Can excite or inhibit movement
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19
Q

a disorder in the basal ganglia would be?

A

Huntington’s and Parkinson’s disease

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20
Q

The somatotopic organization controls what side of the body?

A

The contralateral body ;opposite side

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21
Q

What is Huntington’s disease ?

A

The degeneration of the basal ganglia due to a genetic mutation of the dominant gene on chromosome 4

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22
Q

Why are some signs of Huntington’s disease appear early on some individuals and some later?

A

Excessive number of trinucleotide repeats (CAG) ; meaning the greater number of repeats, the earlier the onset of symptoms will appear

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23
Q

What do you see in a patient with Huntington’s disease?

A

Eventual slowness of movement, chorea (jerking/excessive movements) immobility, and death

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24
Q

Nancy Wexler

A

Founded the genetic test to determine if the individual is a carrier for the Huntington’s disease mutation

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25
What is Parkinson's Disease ?
Degeneration of striatum (basal ganglia)causing a loss of dopamine leading to the reduction and slowness in movement
26
How does Parkinson's Disease look in a patient?
Difficulty and slowness of movement Resting tremor Muscle rigidity Loss of facial muscle tone cognitive impairments Depression
27
Treatments for Parkinson's disease?
- L-dopa → precursor of dopamine - Fetal tissue transplantation - Stem cell transplantation - Surgeries to destroy certain parts of the basal ganglia that - are inhibitory versus excitatory - Changing the activity of the basal ganglia by giving deep brain stimulation
28
Why is L-dopa a controversial treatment?
Can stop working or leads to excessive movements; too much or too little dopamine is bad
29
Circadian rhythms
(daily rhythm) ; The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus has intrinsic rhythms that allow them to have the ability to keep time
30
free running clock
about a 24.5 - 25 hour cycle
31
why would we be out of sync ?
- jet lag - shift workers - time changes
32
Adolescents and sleep
Circadian rhythm from people shifts from childhood to adolescence, meaning they tend to sleep later
33
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)
Depression during periods with long dark cycles Treatment : bright, full spectrum light
34
how to get back into sync?
- taking melatonin - Reduce light (zeitgebers) when sleeping, including phone’s blue light
35
EGG ; Electroencephalogram
Brain waves, desynchronized and synchronized waves
36
Desynchronized waves
Small amplitude waves meaning lots of messages are being processed in the brain
37
Synchronized waves
Large amplitude waves, meaning not a lot of messages are being processed in the brain
38
EMG ; electromyography
Muscle tone
39
EOG : Electro-oculogram
Eye movements
40
Awake and REM sleep
1. Desynchronized EGG 2. Rapid eye movement 3. Paralysis 4. Penile erection/vaginal secretions 5. Frequently associated with vivid narrative-like dreams 6. PGO activity (Pons geniculate occipital)
41
how long is the sleep cycle?
90 minutes
42
which stage do we spend the most time in ?
More time it spent in Sleep Stage 4 (sleep wave ; early in the night) while later in the night we spend the rest of majority of time in REM sleep (early morning)
43
Insomia
Inadequate sleep ; mainly the cause of insomnia is drug dependency ; having to take more and more medication to fall asleep
44
Sleep Apnea
Abstraction in the airway, gasping for air during the night
45
Narcolepsy
Abnormalities in the neurochemical orexin (hypocretin) ; characterized by REM Sleep
46
Catalepsy
Losing all muscle tone and paralyze for a couple of minutes due to a trigger (laughing, crying, exitement,etc.)
47
Sleep paralysis
paralyzed when they wake up or when they’re about to fall asleep may include hallucinations
48
in most animals, NOT HUMANS, pheromones are detected by the
vemeronasal organ
49
in humans , the “pheromones” we smell would be perceived through?
Olfactory receptors
50
Rem Sleep Disorder
Physically acting out dreams due to this disorder, when the individual is sleeping because it won't lose muscle tone
51
Slow-wave sleep disorder
includes bed-wetting, night terrors, sleepwalking
52
Sleep beauty syndrome (Kleine-Levin) Syndrome
sleeping for hours, days, weeks, or even months; rare disorder as it affects 1 in a million due to a dysfunction of the thalamus and/or hypothalamus - most common in teenage boys - no treatment
53
why do we sleep?
1. Energy conservation 2. Predator avoidance 3. Body Restoration 4. Memory consolidation 5. Removal of “garbage” and toxins
54
What is one of the things the brain does when asleep and, in a way, prevents Alzheimer's disease?
The cerebral spinal fluid will clear out the brain from toxins as the brain does not have a lymphatic system to clear it out like the rest of the body ; this is called the Glymphatic system ; main thing cleared out during this process is Amyloid beta → excessive buildup causes amyloid plaque in the brain
55
Effects of sleep deprivation
Can affect mood, cognitive abilities, poor memory, increased impulsiveness, poor judgment Can lead to hallucinations Sleep longer the next night, but not catching up (more REM and stage 4 sleep)
56
Chronic sleep deprivation is associated with
Increased weight Type 2 diabetes Cardiovascular diseases Reduced immune function Mental health disorders often have disruptions in their sleep
57
REM sleep?
Probably involved memory consolidation, but not really understood Deprived of REM, the sleep cycle will jump right into REM, so it's shortened
58
Gonads
Testes / ovaries
59
Internal sex organs
seminal vesicles/uterus, fallopian tubes
60
External sex organs
Penis, scrotum/clitoris
61
the importance of the Y chromosome
The Y chromosome contains a gene (SRY) that causes the gonads to become testes
62
Mechanoreceptors
Sensitive to mechanical or physical movement ex. free nerve ending in hair follicles
63
thermoreceptors
Sensitive to temperature
64
nociceptors
sensitive to pain
65
dermatoma
skin segment
66
how is sensory information processed?
sensory information is received from the dermatome, which travels via the spinal nerve, into the dorsal root into the spinal cord from there it travels over the contralateral side and to the thalamus from the thalamus, the sensory information travels to the primary somatosensory cortex on the postcentral gyrus
67
where is the most devotion in the cortical area?
most devotion is to the hands and face = sensitive
68
is the cortex plastic?
yes! It changes based on experience aka injury
69
how does the cortex change when an injury occurs?
When sensory input is lost, like an amputation, the area of the cortex that received sensory input from that missing limb gets taken over by adjacent inputs
70
Phantom limb
The sensation that an amputated limb is still present, ; often painful
71
Damage to the somatosensory cortical areas in the parietal cortex leads to
Astereognosia
72
Astereognosia
Inability to recognize objects by touch ex. confuses wife's head with a shirt
73
More damage to posterior regions in the parietal cortex where somatosensory and visual information blend it causes
Neglect syndrome
74
Neglect syndrome
Neglect half of their body or neglect half of their visual world
75
How is pain sensed?
Nociceptors releases neurotransmitter substance P, into the spinal cord the pain message travels up to the contralateral hemisphere, ending up in both the somatosensory cortex and limbic system
76
Why is the limbic system aware of pain?
Limbic system is important for emotion and learning, thus pain is associated with an emotional response like sadness or anger
77
gate theory was coined by?
Melzack and Wall
78
gate theory
Believed that stimuli can shut the gate, or stop the flow of pain messages
79
how is analgesia produced ?
Produced by some factors that are mediated by the release of endorphins that bind into opioid receptors thus reducing pain sensitivity
80
analgesia
reduction of pain sensetivity
81
How do we test for analgesia?
Naloxone, an antagonist to endorphins (blocks opioid receptors) stops the analgesia effect = meaning that the analgesia was due to the activation of opioid receptors
82
How do we know analgesia did not occur?
If you inject a person with naloxone and the factor maintains its analgesic effect meaning the pain was reduced by another mechanism
83
what do motor neurons release?
acetycholine
84
Why is proprioception important
Because individuals who lose their proprioception will often not move even if their motor system is intact
85
what are two major proprietors
muscle spindle and golgi tendon organs
86
Monosynaptic stretch reflex
hammer to the knee test, stretching the muscle spindle
87
central pattern generators
Circuits that control coordinated movements like walking
88
is motor control contralateral or ipsilateral?
Contralateral
89
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)
Motor weakness, which progresses in losing all motor functioning, however with cognitive abilities intact
90
zeitebergs
Environmental cues like light and other stimuli that entertain our circadian rhythm
91
what is sleep?
a behaivor
92
what do we taste?
sweet sour salty bitter umami
93
how do we sense flavor?
taste and smell
94
papillae
Bumps in our tongue that have taste buds
95
Each taste buds contains how many taste receptors
50-150
96
taste receptors go through a cycle of growth
Once every 2 weeks
97
is taste information contralateral or ipsilateral?
ipsilateral
98
ageusia
loss of taste perception
99
who is a super taster?
Sensitive in taste ; taste PTC or PROP
100
Olfactory receptors go through a cycle of growth
once a month
101
Gender differences in smell?
Women are better at detecting orders; mainly during child bearing years
102
damage to the olfactory system leads to
ansomia
103
ansomia
losing sense of smell
104
specific anosmias
Genetic differences = not sensitive to particular smells 50% of the population has this
105
hyperosmia
Drug exposure or something other than damage leading to oversensitive to smells
106
Synesthesia
Stimulation of one sensory modality (color blue) is experience when another is simultaneously (hearing the word truck)
107
what is nature's impulse?
to create a female !
108
Y chromosome, the SRY gene is expressed
leads to the development of testes
109
2 X chromosomes leads to
the development of ovaries
110
how is intersex occurring in humans?
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia ; adrenal glands are overgrown at birth and lead to an unusual amounts of adrenal hormones leading to sec organs to be ambiguous
111
the testes release 2 hormones?
1. anti-mullerian hormone 2. testerone

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