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Spring 2017 > Psy 201 Test 3 > Flashcards

Psy 201 Test 3 Flashcards

1
Q

learning

A

refers to a relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge due to experience

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2
Q

conditioning

A

learning associations between events that occur in an organism’s environment

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3
Q

classical conditioning

A

a type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus; reflexes, automatic behavior (e.g. tone associated w/ hammer to knee reflex > tone only > knee still responds)

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4
Q

classical conditioning is sometimes called ? conditioning in honor of ?, a Russian psychologist - “psychic secretions”

A

Pavlovian; Ivan Pavlov (dog salivation stimulus experiment - tone associated w/ meat powder so salivates when presented the tone)

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5
Q

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A

a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning (e.g. meat powder)

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6
Q

unconditioned response (UCR)

A

an unlearned reaction to the UCS that occurs without previous conditioning (e.g. salivating)

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7
Q

conditioned stimulus (CS)

A

a previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response (e.g. tone + powder)

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8
Q

conditioned response (CR)

A

a learned reaction to a CS that occurs because of previous conditioning (e.g. tone > salivation)

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9
Q

what are the stages of classical conditioning?

A

acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recover, second spontaneous recovery

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10
Q

acquisition

A

initial stage of learning

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11
Q

extinction

A

gradual weakening and disappearance of the response tendency; occurs when reinforcement of the response is no longer present

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12
Q

spontaneous recovery

A

reappearance of extinguished response after a period of non-exposure to CS

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13
Q

an unconditioned response (can be/cannot be) extinguished

A

cannot be

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14
Q

stimulus generalization

A

broadening of CS to include similar stimuli (e.g. John Watson’s Little Albert demo > induced a phobia; white rat + loud noise)

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15
Q

stimulus discrimination

A

can learn to respond to one stimulus and not another if they are not too similar

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16
Q

renewal effect

A

if a response is extinguished in a different environment from where it was acquired, it will reappear when entering the original environment

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17
Q

evaluative conditioning

A

change likes and dislikes by pairing with positive or negative stimuli

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18
Q

operant conditioning

A

a type of conditioning in which voluntary responses come to be controlled by their consequences

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19
Q

fundamental principle of operant conditioning

A

organisms tend to repeat those responses that are followed by favorable consequences

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20
Q

?, building upon the work of ? and other, came up with the notion of reinforcement

A

BF Skinner; Edward Thorndike

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21
Q

reinforcement

A

occurs when an event following a response increases the organism’s tendency to make that response (note that what is reinforcing for one person may not be for others; harsh words may be more reinforcing than nothing at all)

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22
Q

operant chamber

A

created by Skinner; often called “Skinner box”; a lot of early research on OC made use of

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23
Q

reinforcement contingencies

A

the circumstances or rules that determine how responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers

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24
Q

acquisition of response

A

the formation of a new response tendency; may have to shape the response - reinforcement of closer and closer approximations to the desired response; used by many animal trainers to get animals to perform complex tasks

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25
Q

discrimination

A

can make a stimulus a “signal” for when reinforcement is available

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26
Q

primary reinforcers

A

events that are inherently reinforcing due to satisfying biological needs (food, water, sex, etc.)

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27
Q

secondary reinforcers

A

those that are conditioned by being associated with primary reinforcements (money, attention, good grades, flattery, etc.)

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28
Q

schedule of reinforcement

A

a specific pattern of presentation of reinforcers over time

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29
Q

continuous reinforcement

A

occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforced; not very resistant to extinction

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30
Q

intermittent reinforcement

A

occurs when a designated response is reinforced only some of the time

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31
Q

BF Skinner and others spent a great deal of time working out characteristic response to various schedules - there are four main types:

A
  1. Fixed-Ratio (FR)
  2. Variable-Ratio (VR)
  3. Fixed-Interval (FI)
  4. Variable-Interval (VI)
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32
Q

fixed-ratio

A

lower resistance to extinction; only gets reinforced after responds x times; overall rapidly responding with pauses

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33
Q

variable-ratio

A

higher resistance to extinction; unpredictable when reinforcement occurs, but general idea; don’t pause much (e.g. slot machine)

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34
Q

fixed-interval

A

lower resistance to extinction; dead period, first response after dead period gives reinforcement, then dead again; long pauses because learn schedule; scalloping effect (e.g. studying for a test)

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35
Q

variable-interval

A

higher resistance to extinction; unpredictable when reinforcement is coming, so responds frequently but not rapidly; slow, steady rate (e.g. studying because teacher uses pop quizzes)

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36
Q

reinforcement (always/never) causes a response tendency to be STRENGTHENED

A

ALWAYS

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37
Q

positive reinforcement

A

the presentation of a “rewarding” stimulus after a response

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38
Q

negative reinforcement

A

the removal of a noxious or aversive stimulus after a response

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39
Q

negative reinforcement plays a role in

A

both escape learning (response that ends or decreases an aversive situation) and avoidance learning (response that prevents some aversive stimulation from happening)

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40
Q

punishment

A

not the same as negative reinforcement; decreases the likelihood that the behavior will occur; can either be the presentation of a negative stimulus following a behavior (e.g. spanking) or the removal of something positive (e.g. grounding/taking away phone)

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41
Q

apply punishment swiftly because

A

waiting weakens the association between the response and the outcome

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42
Q

use punishment just severe enough to be effective because

A

too stringent can lead to an emotional response

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43
Q

explain the punishment because

A

this is more effective than the punishment alone

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44
Q

minimize dependence on physical punishment because

A

it is more effective to withhold positive things

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45
Q

instinctive drift

A

animals will drift away from a conditioned response that interferes with an instinctive behavior (e.g. raccoons manipulate or “wash” coins instead of putting them in a box to get food because they hoard shiny things naturally)

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46
Q

conditioned taste aversion

A

e.g. if you are sick after eating something, you develop an aversion for it; seems to be a clear case of CC, but problems: a long delay b/w eating food and becoming nauseous, one-trial learning, why the food and not anything in between?; exception to normal conditioning

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47
Q

explanation for conditioned taste aversion

A

found by John Garcia and colleagues; very strong biological behavior that overrides everything else - throw up poison, so connect throwing up to last food you ate

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48
Q

preparedness

A

involves species-specific predispositions to be conditioned in certain ways and not others (e.g. are you more afraid of snakes or stoves? snakes, even tho you’ve had more negative experiences with stoves); thought that evolutionary forces influence this predisposition

49
Q

Edward Tolman

A

early learning theorist who went against the grain of thinking during his time; latent learning and “cognitive maps”

50
Q

latent learning

A

e.g. rate in maze learns the way to goal box with food reward; animal who got time to explore the maze first with no goal will solve the maze in fewer tries

51
Q

“cognitive maps”

A

e.g. teach animal the turns to get to a goal box, but when put animal in box with many new possible paths, it knows which one to take because it has a sense of direction to where the goal box is - made a mental map

52
Q

observational learning

A

investigated extensively by Albert Bandura; occurs when an organism’s responding is influenced by watching others; conditioning takes place vicariously by watching others; important in controversy about whether media violence results in more aggression

53
Q

attention is important because

A

you have to pay attention in order to remember

54
Q

memory

A

the process by which info is retained for later use

55
Q

3 key processes in memory (describe each)

A
  1. encoding (forming a memory code - attention is very important in this)
  2. storage (maintaining encoded info in memory over time)
  3. retrieval (recovering info from memory stores)
56
Q

encoding

A

attention involves focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events; divided attention causes deficits in memory encoding; humans do not truly “multitask” but rather switch attention back and forth, but encoding can differ due to differences in attention level

57
Q

what are the levels of processing?

A

shallow, intermediate, and deep

58
Q

shallow processing encoding type

A

structural: emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus

59
Q

shallow processing question example

A

is the word written in capital letters?

60
Q

intermediate processing encoding type

A

phonemic: emphasizes what a word sounds like

61
Q

intermediate processing question example

A

does the word rhyme with weight?

62
Q

deep processing encoding type

A

semantic: emphasizes the meaning of verbal input

63
Q

deep processing question example

A

would the word fit in the sentence: “he met a ___ on the street”?

64
Q

elaboration

A

linking the stimulus to other information (relate to your own experiences)

65
Q

other influences on encoding

A

elaboration, visual imagery, motivation to remember

66
Q

visual imagery

A

try to visualize connections of different words (e.g. remember the words “cat” and “gold” by imagining a golden cat); harder to do with word pairs like “truth” and “peace,” which are lower in imagery value

67
Q

information processing theories of memory postulate 3 memory stores

A

sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory

68
Q

sensory memory

A

preserves information in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second; allows the sensation to linger for a brief time; often considered an afterimage for vision (e.g. glowstick moving in dark)

69
Q

Atkinson and Shiffrin model

A

sensory input > sensory memory > attention > short term memory (rehearsal) > storage > long term memory > retrieval > short term memory

70
Q

short-term memory

A

a limited capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for up to about 20 seconds; can keep it in short term memory for longer with rehearsal (repeating the info over and over - e.g. trying to remember a phone number)

71
Q

what is the capacity of short-term memory?

A

classically thought of as 5-9; more current estimate is 3-5; chunking allows you to group similar things to make it count as 1 item

72
Q

working memory

A

more recent theories have envisioned STM as a kind of “working memory”; it is a modular area of memory for temporary storage and also manipulation of information; Baddeley’s model

73
Q

long-term memory

A

an unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time

74
Q

are memories stored in LTM forever?

A

once thought that they were because of flashbulb memories (e.g. 9-11, though not as accurate as we thought); many memories not lost, we just have a difficult time retrieving them

75
Q

consolidation

A

a hypothetical process involving the gradual conversion of new, unstable memories into stable, durable memory codes stored in LTM (essentially STM > LTM); probs ~20min process

76
Q

how is knowledge in the LTM represnted?

A

people tend to remember a list of items in organizes groups - a conceptual hierarchy is a multilevel classification system based on common properties among items; schemas; semantic networks

77
Q

schemas

A

organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or even abstracted from previous experience with the object or experience (e.g. picture of a professor’s office with weird things in it)

78
Q

semantic networks

A

consist of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts (thinking of apple is tied to tree, fruit, red, green, etc.)

79
Q

retrieval

A

encoding and storage are not worthwhile if memories cannot be retrieved; we do not pull up “video tapes” of past events though, the memories are reconstructions of the events and can be altered by misleading post-event information (which is problematic for the legal system as the recollection of events can be manipulated by subtle differences in how a question is worded)

80
Q

Loftis research

A

the recollection of events can be manipulated by subtle differences in how a question is worded (e.g. watch a video of a two-car collision, “hit” vs “smashed into”)

81
Q

source monitoring

A

the process of making inferences about the origins of a memory; a source-monitoring error occurs when a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source (e.g. attribute something to the Atlantic Monthly when it really came from the National Enquirer)

82
Q

forgetting

A

obviously related to retrieval; although frustrating, it would not be good to never forget anything

83
Q

first to scientifically study forgetting was ? around 1885; was criticized by scientists like ?

A

Hermann Ebbinghaus; Wundt

84
Q

Hermann Ebbinghouse in forgetting experiment

A

used himself as the test subject; learned lists of nonsense syllables and then tested himself on how many he could remember; after mastery, plotted the percentage of retention after different periods of time; “forgetting curve”

85
Q

recall

A

have to reproduce the info (e.g. essay tests)

86
Q

recognition

A

just have to be able to recognize the information; less forgetting (e.g. multiple choice tests)

87
Q

relearning

A

some savings if material was previously learned

88
Q

why do we forget?

A

ineffective encoding; “pseudo-forgetting”; due to lack of attention - never really learned

89
Q

decay

A

assumes that there is slow deterioration in the physiological processes involved in LTM; difficult to prove; passage of time seems less important that what happens during the time

90
Q

interference

A

competition from other information

91
Q

retroactive interference

A

new learning interferes with old (e.g. study for econ then psych, psych will interfere will econ)

92
Q

proactive interference

A

old learning interferes with new (e.g. study for econ then psych, econ will interfere with psych)

93
Q

motivated forgetting

A

became a popular concept due to Freud’s defense mechanism of repression (repression refers to keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious); difficult area for psychologists b/c one doesn’t want something like sexual abuse to go unpunished, but false memories can and have been planted by overly zealous therapists

94
Q

engram

A

a term that has been used by psychologists to be the physiological representation of a memory

95
Q

McConnell’s work with planaria

A

small flatworms that live in water that don’t have much of a brain; McConnell wanted to see if they could learn - paired light with shock to water (scrunch up), and eventually light led to them scrunching; he then blended up the educated planaria, extracted their RNA, and injected that RNA into naive planaria, who then scrunched in response to light (has not been replicated)

96
Q

? stimulated areas that supposedly activated past memories - may not have been real memories

A

Wilder Penfield

97
Q

retrograde amnesia

A

memory for events that occurred prior to the onset of amnesia is lost

98
Q

anterograde amnesia

A

memory for events that occur subsequent to the onset of amnesia is lost or compromised

99
Q

famous case of H.M.

A

amnesia: H.M. had damage in the entire hippocampal region after surgery to alleviate severe seizures (medial temporal lobe memory system); disrupted consolidation process, so very few new memories could be made

100
Q

reconsolidation

A

evidence indicates that when memories are retrieved, they have to be reactivated which can lead to modifications in the memory; very flexible system, but distortions can be introduced into the memories

101
Q

neurogenesis

A

new cells may be produced in the hippocampal area; old view was that no new neurons were produced after a certain time

102
Q

long term potentiation

A

the ease of synaptic transmission may change with repeated use (in thinking about retrieving memories)

103
Q

memory systems

A

more than one; likely operating in different parts of the brain

104
Q

declarative memory system

A

factual info, explicit memories

105
Q

two subsets of declarative memory system

A

semantic and episodic

106
Q

semantic memory system

A

general knowledge, stored undated

107
Q

episodic memory system

A

dated recollections of personal experiences

108
Q

nondeclarative/procedural memory system

A

actions, perceptual motor skills, conditioned reflexeds, implicit memories

109
Q

implicit memories

A

memories we make without conscious knowledge of making them - could be the source of dejavu

110
Q

retrospective memory

A

involves remembering events from the past or previously learned information

111
Q

prospective memory

A

involves remembering to perform actions in the future (“remember to remember”); an important aspect of memory that is only now being studied extensively; people deficient in this are referred to as “absentminded”

112
Q

operational definition of intelligence

A

the score that one achieves on an intelligence test

113
Q

reification

A

giving an abstract concept a name and then treating it as if it is a real, tangible object

114
Q

first serious attempts to try to measure intelligence were done by ? in the mid 1800s and he thought that intelligence was related to ?

A

Sir Francis Galton; sensory acuity (how well/quickly we perceive things)

115
Q

Sir Francis Galton believed

A

in eugenics and that it was a waste to try to educate the masses

116
Q

first useful intelligence test devised by ? around 1905

A

Alfred Binet, who believed that intelligence was not a unitary entity but rather was made up of a number of abilities; came to be the Binet-Simon scale

117
Q

Binet’s test was translated by ? at Stanford University and renamed ?

A

Louis Terman; “Stanford-Binet Test”

118
Q

the idea of a single number, the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) was suggested by German ?; your IQ is your ? divided by your ?

A

William Stern; mental age divided by your chronological age (100 = most common score, above 100 = better intelligence)

119
Q

? introduced a new test for adults that was based not on mental age but rather on the normal distribution; there were verbal and nonverbal scores and he later developed tests for older children and preschoolers

A

David Wechsler (WAIS - Wechsler Adult Intelligence Score)

Spring 2017 (7 decks)

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