pscie 1stQ gr12 Flashcards
substance with varying compositions and 3types
. Mixture
a mixture in which the components can still be identified
a. Heterogeneous mixture
a mixture with observed properties as homogeneous mixtures, but
heterogeneous when subjected to tests
b. Colloid –
a mixture with a very uniform composition Examples:
c. Homogeneous mixture (Solution)
substance with uniform composition 2types
Pure Substance
a substance composing of only one kind of atom
a. Element
a substance composing of molecules, a combination of atoms which are made up of 2 or more elements
b. Compound
is the state of matter with a defined appearance. It has its own shape, and has very little to no molecular movement
Solid
is the state of matter with molecular movement. . Its movement is dictated by how fast the liquid flows. It has no shape of its own due to its loose molecular structure.
- Liquid
the state of matter with high molecular movement. Its molecular structure is looser than liquid. It behaves the same way as a liquid
- Gas
is the state of matter with a very high molecular movement. Due to heat, a gas becomes plasma due to the energy it absorbs and releases, making its molecules move even faster.
temperature plasmas glow a certain color
- Plasma
in matter happens when heat is introduced. Heat allows molecules to absorb energy, thereby increasing its energy levels. Increasing energy means movement among particles.
matter PHASE TRANSITIONS
Phase Transition of Matter 8
melting
evaporation
ionization
recombination
condensation
frezzing
sublimation
deposition
Phase Transition of Matter 4
physical property
chemical
extensive
intensive
is the property of matter in which the material can be quantified using measurements. It is also the property in which the material can also be assessed by the five senses.
o Examples are mass, color, length
- Physical Property
the property in which the material is assessed from its chemical structure, processes, and results. o Examples are flammability, toxicity, enthalpy (total heat content in a system)
- Chemical Property
****is the property in which the material is dependent on its physical properties. If any physical property changes in a material, its extensive properties change accordingly. o Examples are mass, area, length
- Extensive Property
is the property in which the material is **independent **on its physical properties.
o Examples are color, temperature, density
- Intensive Property
CONSUMER PRODUCTS 4
- Food Additives
- Active Ingredients
- Cleaning Agents
- Cosmetics
are substances added to food and/or beverages to improve flavor and appearance. They are also used to preserve the natural taste of food.
- Food Additives
are substances that are biologically active. They are used mostly in pharmaceutical drugs and commodities like soap, powders, and others.
- Active Ingredients
are substances that are used to remove dirt, along with dust, stains, clutter, and foul odor. They may also kill some harmful microorganisms in the cleaning process.
- Cleaning Agents are
are substances that enhance the consumer’s appearance. Cosmetics also improve the consumer’s fragrance.
- Cosmetics
CLASSIFICATIONS OF CLEANING AGENTS 3
- Surfactants*
- Bleaching agents
- Disinfectants
or surface-active ingredients, are chemical agents that aid in cleaning surfaces that contain oil, stains, and dirt, which usually are not soluble in water
- Surfactants
are formulations that cause whitening – or lightening – to an affected substrate by solubilizing color-producing substances or by altering their light-absorbing properties
- Bleaching agents
Types of Cleaning Agents: 4
- General-purpose cleaners
- Bathroom cleaners
- Special surface cleaners
- Stain and deposit removers
are substances that are weakly alkaline intended for a variety of uses.
- General-purpose cleaners
are products specifically designed for bathroom surfaces, such as tubs, tiles, and toilet bowls, which generally develop stains like mildew
- Bathroom cleaners
are substances designed to clean certain surface materials such as glass, vinyl, carpets, and upholstery, to name a few
- Special surface cleaners
are substances designed to remove spots, usually with the aid of abrasive materials such as steel wools and brushes
- Stain and deposit removers
Classification of matter graph
notebook
CLASSIFICATIONS OF COSMETICS 7
- Lotions
- Deodorants
- Perfumes
- Shaving creams
- Toothpaste,
- Shampoos
. Skin whiteners,
are substances that generally moisturize and soften the skin.
- Lotions
are products designed to prevent and remove unpleasant body smells and are available in the market as liquids, powders, or sprays
- Deodorants
are products that impart a fragrant odor and are usually composed of aromatic oils, alcohol, and water.
- Perfumes
soften hair strands in many different parts of the body, which allows for their easy removal
- Shaving creams
, which cleanse and polish teeth and freshen breath, contain polishing agents, surfactants, sweetener, and flavoring agents.
- Toothpaste,
are used to cleanse hair, with their main ingredients include surfactants and antidandruff substances.
- Shampoos
which are among the most popular products nowadays, contain bleaching or antioxidant substances like glutathione, Metathione, hydroquinone, tretinoin, and **kojic acid **that inhibit melanin production in the skin
- Skin whiteners,
Some nebulae never initiate their protostar development because they are impeded by another more massive star, such as the case of the planet Jupiter
Protostar 𝛂 alpha
It has been theorized that ———-is a failed star
jupiter
If the nebula has enough mass to form an actual star, it becomes a beta protostar, which then becomes a Main Sequence star, such as our Sun.
Protostar 𝛃 beta
the stars that live fast and die young. Because they are formed from an extremely massive nebula, the protostar is formed from the collapsing matter due to gravity.
Protostar 𝛄 gamma
2 ELEMENT FORMATION IN HIGH-DENSITY STARS
Basic Hydrogen Chain (“proton-proton”)
Advanced Hydrogen Chain
the most dominant and highly supported theory of the origin of the universe.
Big Bang theory
2 elements of bigbang theory
hydro water helium air
this theory states that the universe began in a explosion from an initial point or singularity which has expanded over billions of years to form the universe as we know it
big bnag thory
It explains the creation of light elements in the intense heat of the early moments following the Big Bang through a process of nuclear fusion.
I. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
This process, originally proposed formally in 1939 by George Gamow and Ralph Alpher, is consistent with the known astronomical observations and is widely accepted by the scientific community
. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
The is a process believed to have taken place in the early moments of the universe, shortly after the initial expansion took place according to the Big Bang theory. This process
. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
a nuclear reaction in which two light nuclei (such as hydrogen) combine to form a heavier nucleus (such as helium).
Nuclear Fusion
thebigbang theory tingin notebook
This is the process by which elements are created within stars by combining the protons and neutrons together from the nuclei of lighter elements.
Stellar Nucleosynthesis:
The first to suggest that nuclear fusion reactions were taking place in the stars was ——– and in—
Eddington in 1920
later on developed a formula to calculate the probability of such reactions taking place
George Gamow gamow factor
in——- proposed two processes used to convert hydrogen to helium. The first, proton-proton cycle, is taking place in stars with similar mass to our Sun. The second, CNO cycle (carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle),
Hans Bethe in 1939
, in —–, —– suggested that even heavier nuclei are forming in stars, such asCARBON AND IRON
in 1946, Fred Hoyle
- The process that takes place during the explosion of a star. Elements such as silicon and nickel are formed through fast fusion.
Explosive or Supernova Nucleosynthesis
. During this process, the heavier nuclei of carbon or oxygen fragment into lighter elements such as Be, B, and Li, making these elements more abundant compared to the ratios that result by other types of nucleosynthesis.
Cosmic Ray Spallation
C. Reaction Cycles during the Synthesis of Heavy Elements in Stars:
-HYDROGEN BURNING
-helium burning
-burning of heavier elements
-production of heavier elements than iron
first stage begins with the protonproton cycle, otherwise known as the proton-proton chain
hydrogen Burning
the three elements are used as catalysts in order to fuse four protons and produce an alpha particle, two neutrinos and two positrons.
carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO) cycle
If the star is massive enough, another set of nuclear fusion reactions begins.
Burning of Heavier Elements
After the production of iron, the star collapses under its own gravity due to a lack of fusion, because Iron absorbs energy rather than release it.
Production of Heavier Elements than Iron
The second stage begins after most of the hydrogen is burned, which is around this time a main sequence star (which our Sun belongs to) turns into a Red Giant.
Helium Burning:
Stated to be *Democritus’ mentor *
He theorized that **motion is meaningless without the Void, and it is wrong to associate the Void with nonexistence.
His definition of the Void is actually a vacuum. **
He theorized as well that everything that is real contain indivisible parts that comprise it, making these indivisible things also real.
Democritus borrowed his mentor’s idea, and improved upon it.
Leucippus
(around 500 - 401 BC)
Proposed that everything is made up of four (4) elements:
* Fire – the element that can “cut” and “move”, but it is “light”. It is both “hot” and “dry”.
* Air – the element that can “move” and is “light”, but cannot “cut”. It is both “hot” and “moist”.
* Water – the element that cannot “cut” and is “heavy”, but can “move”. It is “cold” and “moist”.
* Earth – the element that cannot “cut” and “move”, and “heavy” as well. It is “cold” and “dry”.
Empedocles
(490 – 430 BC)
Proposed that* if you kept cutting a substance in half forever, eventually you would end up with an “uncuttable” particle. *
He called the **particles atoms, meaning “indivisible” in Greek. **
Democritus thought that atoms were small, hard particles of a single material and in different shapes and sizes.
He thought that atoms were always moving and formed different material by combining with each other.
Aristotle disagreed with Democritus’ idea that would end up with an indivisible particle. Because Aristotle had greater public influence, Democritus’ ideas were ignored for centuries
Democritus
(460 - 370 BC)
Proposed that everything made is not meant to be changed. **
Improved the idea of the four classical elements (fire, air, water, and earth) by adding specific corpuscles (tiny particles), in which every form of matter can be divided into one of the basic four geometric solids, each having a unique shape.
Plato
(428 - 348 BC)
plato’s for fire because its penetrating points and sharp edges made it mobile.
Tetrahedron
plato’s*for air because it can penetrate, but is less mobile than fire.
- Octahedron
platos for water because it cannot penetrate anything and is less mobile.
Icosahedron
—- In his time, scientists knew that elements *combined with each other in specific proportions form compounds. *
——- claimed that the reason for this was because elements are made of atoms.
John Dalton (1766 - 1844)
Corrected John Dalton’s theory in which *equal volumes of gas, at equal temperature pressure contain equal numbers of molecules. *
His law allowed him to study and deduce the diatomic nature of numerous gases by studying the volumes at which these gases reacted.
Amedeo Avogadro
(1776 - 1856)
Noticed that dust particles within pollen grains seem to be jiggling erratically when it floats on water, for no reason.
Robert Brown (1773 - 1858)
used a cathode-ray tube to conduct an experiment which showed that there are small particles inside atoms.
This discovery identified an error in Dalton’s atomic theory. Atoms can be divided into smaller parts.
Joseph J. Thomson
(1856 - 1940)
conducted an experiment in which **he shot a beam of positively charged particles into a sheet of gold foil. **
**He predicted that if atoms were soft, **as the plum-pudding model suggested, the particles would pass through the gold and continue in a straight line.
Ernest Rutherford (1871 - 1937)
suggested that **electrons travel around the nucleus in definite paths. **
These paths are located at certain “levels” from the nucleus.
Electrons cannot travel between paths, but they can jump from one path to another.
Niels Bohr
(1885 - 1962)
studied under the laboratory of Ernest Rutherford. There, he developed the application of X-ray spectra to study the atomic structure.
By measuring the wavelengths of the x-rays given off by certain metals, he was able to determine the number of positive charges in the nucleus of an atom.
He revalidated the importance of the atomic number.
Henry Moseley (1887 - 1915)
He suggested that the **modern atomic theory **is based on the wave nature of the atom
Louis de Broglie (1892 - 1987)
Adapted de Broglie’s idea and explored the idea of whether or not the movement of electrons in an atom could be explained better as a wave than as a particle.
Explained that electrons are wave functions. As such, waveforms do not behave in a linear manner.
Erwin Schrödinger (1887 - 1961)
The **father of quantum mechanics. **
Proposed that every particle behaves in patterns that, when subjected to changes, may or may not be the same as it was before.
Studied extensively about subatomic particles.
Werner Heisenberg (1901 - 1976)
According to the ________of matter, as proposed by the natural philosopher Empedocles (490-430 BC), everything came from the four (4) classical elements
Fire, Air, Water, and Earth
hot moist cold dry
fundamental Greek theory
Aristotle (384-322 BC) supported Empedocles’ idea about the four elements and even added a fifth one:
Aether (sometimes spelled ether or æther).
is is protoscience of chemistry and ltimate goal is to turn metal into gold
alchemy
defined as the smallest unit of a chemical element, containing all the properties of that element.
atom
atom 2 basic parts
the nucleus and the electrons
are tiny particles that move around the nucleus, carrying a negative nuclear charge equal to −1.6022 × 10−19 coulombs.
- Electrons
the central part of the atom that carries its atomic mass. It is made of two (2) nucleons: protons and neutrons
e nucleus
are tiny particles 1,836 times heavier than electrons and carry nuclear positive charges equal (yet, opposing) to the charge value of electrons
proton
are tiny particles that are slightly heavier than protons and carry zero (0) nuclear charge.
- Neutron
is the number of protons in a chemical element, serving as its identity as written in the Periodic Table
atomic number
English physicist ——– experimentally found that different metals bombarded with electrons emitted x-rays of varying degrees
henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley
sometimes referred to as the mass number) is the number of protons and neutrons combined. It dictates how heavy an atom’s nucleus (and the atom itself) is
atomic mass
only element without any neutrons
hydrogen
AZX
A atomic mass
Z atomic number
X element symbol
WHO created the very first Periodic Table, arranging the elements according to their atomic masses.
Dmitri Mendeleev
However,
———- argued that the elements must be arranged through their atomic numbers
Henry Moseley
is a term used by chemists and physicists to call a variation of an element. Each ————– has the same atomic number, but they differ in atomic mass.
Isotope
(also known as nuclear decay) stabilizes an unstable isotope by releasing its excess mass in the form of radiation.
radioactive decay
Radioactive decay has three (3) types
alpha (α), beta (β), and gamma (γ) decay.
———decay is the process where an unstable chemical element releases a helium nucleus, also known as an ——– -particle (α), from its unstable nucleus to achieve stability
Alpha-decay
—-DECAYthe process where an unstable chemical element releases a —– -particle (β) to achieve stability. Doing this does NOT convert the unstable chemical element into another element. “Electron Capture
beta
the antiparticle counterpart to an electron
positron
the process that is always active and in conjunction with the other decay processes
Gamma decay
