Problem Solving Flashcards
Types of Problem Solving given by
Greeno (1978)
Several instances are given and one has to find the rule/pattern involved.
Name type of problem given by Greeno
Inducing Structure
Initial stage given and one has to find the sequence of operations that will produce goal state.
Name type of problem given by Greeno
Transformation
All elements given are arranged in a way that problem is solved.
Name type of problem by Greeno.
Arrangement
Examples of problems are given. Name type of problem given by Greeno
1). Hanoi Tower Problem
2). Anagrams
3). Reasoning by Analogy
4). Luchin Water Mug
1). Inducing Structure: Reasoning by Analogy
2). Transformation: Hanoi Tower Problem
3). Arrangement: Anagram, Luchin water mug
Characteristics of a well defined problem:
Clear given and end state, limited no. of operations which can be applied to given state.
If these 3 are present, then any problem can be solved by a computer. T/F
T
There is no way to find an algorithmic solution to ill defined problems. T/F
F. Ill defined problems can be divided into sub-problems which can be well defined.
It is ill defined problems which require creativity. Well defined ones can be solved using simple algorithms, creativity not needed. T/F
F. Even well defined problems involve creativity if analysed in depth.
Ill defined problems can be divided into sub problems which can be well defined.
3 concepts of problem solving
1). Problem currently in a state of flux
2). Problem should be in a different state
3). No direct, obvious way to effect the change.
Concepts given by?
Mayer (1983)
Rearrange:
Evaluation, Organizing of Information, Monitoring, Problem Identification, Allocation of Resources, Problem Definition, Strategy Formulation
1). Problem Identification
2). Problem Definition
3). Strategy Formulation
4). Organizing of Information
5). Allocation of Resources
6). Monitoring
7). Evaluation
Four stages by Graham Wallas
1). Preparation
2). Incubation
3). Insight
4). Verification
Stages:
1). Understand problem
2). Make plan
3). Carry out plan
4). Looking back
Theory given by
Polya (1957)
Information Processing Theory of Problem Solving was given by
Newell & Simon
Name concept where problem solver continuously works to reduce the difference between the current state and the goal state. This involves selecting operators that minimize the difference.
Information Processing of Problem Solving (Given by?)
Means-End Analysis
Given by Newell & Simon
State Representation: defining initial and goal state
Problem Space: has possibilities of all states between initial and end goal state
Operators: Can be taken to reduce space between initial and goal state
Concepts of which theory of problem solving?
Information Processing Theory of Problem Solving by Newell & Simon
Means-End Analysis, Subgoal Decomposition, Heuristics
Concepts of which theory of problem solving
Information Processing Theory of Problem Solving by Newell and Simon
Name this heuristic technique which involves the tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information encountered when making decisions. Subsequent adjustments are often insufficient, leading to a biased final judgment.
Anchoring/Adjustment Heuristics
Which heuristic is based on the influence of emotions or feelings on decision-making? People tend to make judgments and decisions based on their emotional reactions, valuing positive experiences and avoiding negative ones.
Affect Heuristic
Name this heuristic, people assess the probability of an event or the frequency of a category based on its availability in memory. If something is easily recalled, it is often considered more probable or frequent.
Availability Heuristic
Example: If a person hears about a plane crash on the news, they might overestimate the likelihood of such events occurring because the vivid and dramatic nature of the information makes it more available in their memory. Name heuristic.
Availability Heuristic
Name this heuristic involves making judgments about the probability of an event based on how similar it is to a prototype or stereotype. It relies on categorizing objects or events based on how representative they are of a particular category.
Representativeness Heuristic
Example: If someone encounters a person who fits their stereotype of a librarian (glasses, quiet demeanor), they might incorrectly assume that this person is indeed a librarian, neglecting the base rate or overall probability.
Name the heuristic.
Representativeness Heuristic
Determinants of Representativeness Heuristic
Similarity, Randomness (neglecting it?), Algorithm
The perceptual approach of Restructuring has been derived from which school of psychology
Gestalt
Assumptions and fixation help in solving a problem faster. T/F
F.
They’re obstacles in problem solving.
Tendency to approach problems using the same mindset or strategy, even when alternative solutions exist.
Mental Fixedness
Individuals may have difficulty seeing alternative uses for familiar objects.
Functional Fixedness
Language is not essential for thinking. T/F
T. Deaf people think
“Thinking is inner speech”
Watson
“Thought determines language”
Piaget
“Language determines thought”
Bejamin Whorf
1). Language is solely a conduit for converting pre-existing ideas into transmissible form.
2). Language plays a formative role in shaping thought.
Which one’s the contemporary thought and which one’s traditional
Conduit: Traditional
Formative role: Modern
“Language & thought are independent processes until the child is 2 years old”
Lev Vygotsky
Language Acquisition Device
Which principle of Universal Grammar Theory?
Noam Chomsky
Poverty of Stimulus
Not possible to learn native language purely via exposure hence language must be already programmed in brain.
All languages are inherently and deeply similar such thay all humans are capable of learning any language at a young age. Name concept, theory and proponent.
Universality of Language in Universal Grammar Theory given by Naom Chomsky
Since all languages are similar, humans can understand verbal and tonal cues between 2 languages with similar characteristics even if they’re unfamiliar with it. Name principle, theory and proponent.
Principle of Convergence
Universal Grammar Theory
Naom Chomsky
Term metacognition
John Flavell
Knowledge and control kids have over their own thinking and learning. Concept of and definition by?
Metacognition, Cross and Paris
Awareness of one’s own thinking, awareness of the content of one’s conceptualisation, active monitoring of one’s cognitive processes, attempt to regulate one’s cognitive processes
Metacognition by Hennessey
1). Awareness about themselves and other people as cognitive processes
2). Control over cognition & learning experiences via set of methods that help you regulate learning
3). Cognitive efforts currently taking place
(Regulation/Experience/Knowledge)
1). Metacognition Knowledge
2). Metacognition Regulation
3). Metacognition Experiences
Types of Metacognition Knowledge
1). Factual information/ what one knows about oneself/ factors which can influence one’s performance
2). How to do something/ how to perform steps which make up a task
3). When to use a procedure/skill/strategy and when not to
Select amongst:
Procedural, Conditional, Factual
1). Factual
2). Procedural
3). Conditional
Skills in Metacognition Regulation
1). Selection of strategies, right assignment of resources
2). Awareness of understanding of task performance
3). Assessment of final result and efficiency
Select amongst: (Evaluating, Planning, Monitoring)
1). Planning
2). Monitoring
3). Evaluating
Cognitive process in which we use symbols as representations of objects/events.
Thinking
Types of thinking
1). Perceptual/Concrete
2). Conceptual/Abstract
3). Reflective
4). Creative
5). Critical
1). Perception of concrete objects
2). Concepts, symbols, language
3). insight based, uses previous experiences to solve a problem
4). rearranging stimuli to create something new
5). making reasoned judgment examining assumptions
Computed analogy: input device, processing unit, storage unit, output device
Input: Sensory Register
Processing Unit: STM
Storage Unit: LTM
Output Device: Motor Organs/Senses
Specific knowledge about a particular object/Mental representations used for cognitive functioning vs group based on shared properties
Concept and Category
When we encounter a stimulus, features are registered early and automatically. The objects are identified separately and later in processing.
Name theory and proponents. Stages, too
Feature Integration Theory by Treisman & Garry Gelade
1). Pre-attentive Stage: Individual focuses on one distinguishing feature of object
2). Focused Attention: Where individual combines all observed features to form a complete perception
Collection of ideas, prior knowledge and symbolic representations/organized information which guides thought and behavior
Schema
Model where each category has a best example whereas model wherein all concepts are examples.
Prototype Model
Exemplar Model
How are prototypes selected?
Variety of ways, usually just concepts that you’ve come across more frequently
Discovering features that are “common” to a large number of objects and associate these with a symbol which can be applied to other objects.
Concept Formation
Psychological processes in Concept Formation
1). Observation stage
2). Forming a general idea about common properties of some object
3). Differentiation, becoming aware of differences
4). When mind analyzes perceived images & synthesizes what is common to all while ignoring what is unique, that is, the process of noticing similarities & commonalities
1). Perception
2). Generalization
3). Discrimination
4). Abstraction
