problem solving Flashcards
What processes are used in problem solving
Reasoning JudgementDecision making
What did Duncker say
A problem exists what a living organism has a goal but does not know how this goal is to be reached
Example of what is a problem
Finding a baby sitter lots of ways to do this availability of solutions depending on the contextFinding the best move on a board game, knowledge and skill involved and experience but the players motivation is important too - does it matter if a loose
What does it mean to say different problems are affected by different factors
Factors such as motivation which is INTERNAL and culture which is EXTERNAL
What is protocol analysis
This is the idea that if a person gives a verbal account of what they are thinking out load it gives us an insight into how the problem was dealt with
Protocol analysis in problem solving what is this idea depended upon
Depends upon the assumption that information represented in the working memory can be verbalised directly either in verbal form or for transformation to the LTM in non verbal form.Information needs to be moved from the working memory to the LTM
Example of protocol analysis
EgAdd 67 to 37 think out load while you are doing thisShow how different people use different methods to get results
What is the problem with protocol analysis
That mental processes can be hinted at via the analysis of verbal reports but not that thinking out load gives us a direct insight into cognition
Lesgold et al
This is to do with protocol analysis in medical diagnosisThere is a debate that suggests expert clinicians use biomedical knowledge to diagnoseLesgold et al found that these experts used it extensively
Boshuizen and Schmidt
This is to do with protocol analysis in medical diagnosisThere is a debate that suggests expert clinicians use biomedical knowledge to diagnoseSuggested experts used it little
Gilhooly et al
This is to do with protocol analysis in medical diagnosisThere is a debate that suggests expert clinicians use biomedical knowledge to diagnoseHe hypothesised that when experts are able to use things such as age and lifestyle of the person then the use of biomedical knowledge is suppressed Experiment was to ask clinicians to interpret ECG tracesFound the more experience the more accurate the diagnosis the protocol analysis showed that expert clinicians made more use of biomed knowledge
Conclusions from Gilhooly et al
This is to do with protocol analysis in medical diagnosisThere is a debate that suggests expert clinicians use biomedical knowledge to diagnoseSuggests protocol analysis is a useful tool in real life problem solving scenarios as this study resolved literature
What is a simple problem
A simple problem is a problem that needs no background knowledge to solve it eg puzzle
What is the Gestalt legacy
The insight phenomenon the aha momentGAUSS cited by Hall was a young boy who managed to shock his teacher by finding a pattern in numbers that helped him to find the sum of a numberFast solution to adding up
Dunker
Investigated the restructuring problemUsed the x ray experiment Participants had to think out loadThey patient had a tumour and they have to use the x ray to get it but not damage the areas around itThe solution was to lower the intensity of the X-ray Insight was to achieved if participants were trapped by misleading representations that present solutionSet effect
What is set effect
Set effect is the idea that a person has a set way to do something so may try to solve a problem in this way but is unable to do this so there set way can hold them back or in some ways put them ahead of others
Example of the set effect
The nine dot problem Or the exams of arranging water into different jars you learn to do it one way and then when asked a simpler task the learning of the first task can cause a problem
What is functional fixity
This occurs when an OBJECT has to be used in a new way to solve a problem
Duncker in functional fixity
Here he used the candle experiment there were two groups of participants one with tacks, matches, three candles and three small boxesSecond group with the same items but they were all stored inside the boxes Solution rate was higher for the first group As there was a failure of not being able to perceive the use of the boxes when presented as containers
Representation effect
Looking at the tower of Hanoi problem the one with the disks on three pegs and the larger disks cannot be put on smaller disks and you have to move them in so many movesAlso a monster problem Simon and Hayes
Simon and Hayes
Looked at the tower of Hanoi and the monster problemMonster problem there were two versions the MOVE version that looked at different sized monsters transfer globes of different sizes to each other according to a set of rules and then a CHANGE version (isomorphic) which is different sized monsters holding globes which have changed in size The change problem was harder as the different representations appear to be constructed of different problems.
What does isomorphic mean
The idea that the underlying structure of the problem are the same
Zhang and Norman
Looked at a theory to account for the representational effectLooks at internal and external representationsInternal = they are a processing and representational burden as they have to be encoded and maintained in order to solve the problemExternal = they are not given in the actual rules but they are implied by the problemConclusion is that the external representations tend to make the problem easier but the change the nature of the task.
How does the information processing approach see the task of problem solving
It’s sees it as a search processProblem solving resulting in finding a sequence of actions from a large set of possibilities
How can the search process be used
Can be used forwards or backwards from the goal using a problem reduction or a means ends approachEg booking trip to London to New York Can break this down to sub goals such as finding a hotel booking the plane the problem is solved backwards by working from the goal and then working on the sub goals Eg Tower of London task which is similar to the other tower task you are required to hold goals in the working memory
What did Gilhooly et al find on the information processing area
Fund that think out load shows limitations of working memory affect search so only one action is able to be selected from all that is available the search is kind of built up step by step till it has to start again and re evaluate like a means end analysis
What does a means end analysis involve
It reduces the differences between current state and the goal so make moves that get you closer to the goal not always the best strategy as with the hobbits and orcs one you have to move away from the goal in order to achieve the goal (Thomas)
Gestalt restricting a problem what does this meanWhat did ohlsson say
Means to try to re represent it although didn’t really say how to do thisOhlsson suggestedAction operators are generated from the LTM and cued by the representation of the problem then more are cued and then more till the problem is solved BUT if the first initial representation is misleading the operations may be flawed = no more progress this is called an IMPASSE
Ways to resolve impasses
Impasses are when the initial representation of a problem is misleading it causes impasses where no further progress can be made in solving the problemTo resolve ELABORATION adding information like the candle problemRE ENCODING changing the way the problem is phrased like a brainteaserCONSTRAINT RELAXATION making the goal less restricting like the 9 dots problemPut forward by Ohlsson to understand Gestalt approach to restructuring
What does analogy mean
We may have looked at a problem similar to the one presented and because of this we are guided to the correct answer due to dealing with a similar problem before this is analogies
Spellman and holy oak
Participants accept analogies
Holyoak and guck
Castle example of the x ray idea from Duncker = higher success rate then without the analogy even better with a hint
Dunbar
Said in a lab analogies can be superficial and in real life need deep structure
Blanchette and Dunbar
Tested Dunbar original ideas - used participants to lol at public spending, found that participants used structural ways in analogies then non superficial no pressure for a goal made a difference
Gentner and Gentner
Looked at how a analogy worked, found there is like a higher order relationship
Ppl use structure mapping nucleus= sun and the electrodes= planets ppl with certain analogies did better
De groot
Looked at early chess in complex problems, used chess grand masters and 5 skilled chess players thought that the grand masters would think ahead but they did not however they did pick better moves, when asked to reconstruct the board they also did massively better then others by 95 percent
Larkin et al
Looked at complex problems, suggested experts work towards a problem where as a novis will work backwards a means end analysis
Chi et al
Looked at complex problems, found that novice will use surface knowledge but an expert would use deep structure knowledge. They also differed in quant active and qualitative, using more of a qualativie method
Practice makes perfect
Complex problems
Ericsson et al
Said it can take 10 yrs but still not garentee
Need to look at what and how this is important
Individual differences
Ppl r not just empty heads they come with built in knowledge
Poor and good learners
Thorndyke and stasz map reading study diff learners behaved in diff ways as to their technique
Green and Gilhooly
Individual differences
Used statistic package with learners good learner used their own examples but a poor learner used the worked examples seems to suggest the learners are using meta cognition strategies
What is the problem when looking at learning
Learning techniques is not problem solving
Draper
All experts differ
Evaluation point
Problem states become familiar over time
Recognition supports problem solving
But over time familiarity may lead to sub optional solutions being generated
Helie and sun
Used four stages to problem solving in a more creative way 1 prep 2 incubation 3 illumination 4 verification
Holding
Did a study on random chess positions and they had to remember
Found that recall was unrelated to skill level but evaluation skill was better
