problem solving

Question 1

What processes are used in problem solving

Answer 1

Reasoning JudgementDecision making

Question 2

What did Duncker say

Answer 2

A problem exists what a living organism has a goal but does not know how this goal is to be reached

Question 3

Example of what is a problem

Answer 3

Finding a baby sitter lots of ways to do this availability of solutions depending on the contextFinding the best move on a board game, knowledge and skill involved and experience but the players motivation is important too - does it matter if a loose

Question 4

What does it mean to say different problems are affected by different factors

Answer 4

Factors such as motivation which is INTERNAL and culture which is EXTERNAL

Question 5

What is protocol analysis

Answer 5

This is the idea that if a person gives a verbal account of what they are thinking out load it gives us an insight into how the problem was dealt with

Question 6

Protocol analysis in problem solving what is this idea depended upon

Answer 6

Depends upon the assumption that information represented in the working memory can be verbalised directly either in verbal form or for transformation to the LTM in non verbal form.Information needs to be moved from the working memory to the LTM

Question 7

Example of protocol analysis

Answer 7

EgAdd 67 to 37 think out load while you are doing thisShow how different people use different methods to get results

Question 8

What is the problem with protocol analysis

Answer 8

That mental processes can be hinted at via the analysis of verbal reports but not that thinking out load gives us a direct insight into cognition

Question 9

Lesgold et al

Answer 9

This is to do with protocol analysis in medical diagnosisThere is a debate that suggests expert clinicians use biomedical knowledge to diagnoseLesgold et al found that these experts used it extensively

Question 10

Boshuizen and Schmidt

Answer 10

This is to do with protocol analysis in medical diagnosisThere is a debate that suggests expert clinicians use biomedical knowledge to diagnoseSuggested experts used it little

Question 11

Gilhooly et al

Answer 11

This is to do with protocol analysis in medical diagnosisThere is a debate that suggests expert clinicians use biomedical knowledge to diagnoseHe hypothesised that when experts are able to use things such as age and lifestyle of the person then the use of biomedical knowledge is suppressed Experiment was to ask clinicians to interpret ECG tracesFound the more experience the more accurate the diagnosis the protocol analysis showed that expert clinicians made more use of biomed knowledge

Question 12

Conclusions from Gilhooly et al

Answer 12

This is to do with protocol analysis in medical diagnosisThere is a debate that suggests expert clinicians use biomedical knowledge to diagnoseSuggests protocol analysis is a useful tool in real life problem solving scenarios as this study resolved literature

Question 13

What is a simple problem

Answer 13

A simple problem is a problem that needs no background knowledge to solve it eg puzzle

Question 14

What is the Gestalt legacy

Answer 14

The insight phenomenon the aha momentGAUSS cited by Hall was a young boy who managed to shock his teacher by finding a pattern in numbers that helped him to find the sum of a numberFast solution to adding up

Question 15

Dunker

Answer 15

Investigated the restructuring problemUsed the x ray experiment Participants had to think out loadThey patient had a tumour and they have to use the x ray to get it but not damage the areas around itThe solution was to lower the intensity of the X-ray Insight was to achieved if participants were trapped by misleading representations that present solutionSet effect

Question 16

What is set effect

Answer 16

Set effect is the idea that a person has a set way to do something so may try to solve a problem in this way but is unable to do this so there set way can hold them back or in some ways put them ahead of others

Question 17

Example of the set effect

Answer 17

The nine dot problem Or the exams of arranging water into different jars you learn to do it one way and then when asked a simpler task the learning of the first task can cause a problem

Question 18

What is functional fixity

Answer 18

This occurs when an OBJECT has to be used in a new way to solve a problem

Question 19

Duncker in functional fixity

Answer 19

Here he used the candle experiment there were two groups of participants one with tacks, matches, three candles and three small boxesSecond group with the same items but they were all stored inside the boxes Solution rate was higher for the first group As there was a failure of not being able to perceive the use of the boxes when presented as containers

Question 20

Representation effect

Answer 20

Looking at the tower of Hanoi problem the one with the disks on three pegs and the larger disks cannot be put on smaller disks and you have to move them in so many movesAlso a monster problem Simon and Hayes

Question 21

Simon and Hayes

Answer 21

Looked at the tower of Hanoi and the monster problemMonster problem there were two versions the MOVE version that looked at different sized monsters transfer globes of different sizes to each other according to a set of rules and then a CHANGE version (isomorphic) which is different sized monsters holding globes which have changed in size The change problem was harder as the different representations appear to be constructed of different problems.

Question 22

What does isomorphic mean

Answer 22

The idea that the underlying structure of the problem are the same

Question 23

Zhang and Norman

Answer 23

Looked at a theory to account for the representational effectLooks at internal and external representationsInternal = they are a processing and representational burden as they have to be encoded and maintained in order to solve the problemExternal = they are not given in the actual rules but they are implied by the problemConclusion is that the external representations tend to make the problem easier but the change the nature of the task.

Question 24

How does the information processing approach see the task of problem solving

Answer 24

It’s sees it as a search processProblem solving resulting in finding a sequence of actions from a large set of possibilities

Question 25

How can the search process be used

Answer 25

Can be used forwards or backwards from the goal using a problem reduction or a means ends approachEg booking trip to London to New York Can break this down to sub goals such as finding a hotel booking the plane the problem is solved backwards by working from the goal and then working on the sub goals Eg Tower of London task which is similar to the other tower task you are required to hold goals in the working memory

Question 26

What did Gilhooly et al find on the information processing area

Answer 26

Fund that think out load shows limitations of working memory affect search so only one action is able to be selected from all that is available the search is kind of built up step by step till it has to start again and re evaluate like a means end analysis

Question 27

What does a means end analysis involve

Answer 27

It reduces the differences between current state and the goal so make moves that get you closer to the goal not always the best strategy as with the hobbits and orcs one you have to move away from the goal in order to achieve the goal (Thomas)

Question 28

Gestalt restricting a problem what does this meanWhat did ohlsson say

Answer 28

Means to try to re represent it although didn’t really say how to do thisOhlsson suggestedAction operators are generated from the LTM and cued by the representation of the problem then more are cued and then more till the problem is solved BUT if the first initial representation is misleading the operations may be flawed = no more progress this is called an IMPASSE

Question 29

Ways to resolve impasses

Answer 29

Impasses are when the initial representation of a problem is misleading it causes impasses where no further progress can be made in solving the problemTo resolve ELABORATION adding information like the candle problemRE ENCODING changing the way the problem is phrased like a brainteaserCONSTRAINT RELAXATION making the goal less restricting like the 9 dots problemPut forward by Ohlsson to understand Gestalt approach to restructuring

Question 30

What does analogy mean

Answer 30

We may have looked at a problem similar to the one presented and because of this we are guided to the correct answer due to dealing with a similar problem before this is analogies

Question 31

Spellman and holy oak

Answer 31

Participants accept analogies

Question 32

Holyoak and guck

Answer 32

Castle example of the x ray idea from Duncker = higher success rate then without the analogy even better with a hint

Question 33

Dunbar

Answer 33

Said in a lab analogies can be superficial and in real life need deep structure

Question 34

Blanchette and Dunbar

Answer 34

Tested Dunbar original ideas - used participants to lol at public spending, found that participants used structural ways in analogies then non superficial no pressure for a goal made a difference

Question 35

Gentner and Gentner

Answer 35

Looked at how a analogy worked, found there is like a higher order relationship
Ppl use structure mapping nucleus= sun and the electrodes= planets ppl with certain analogies did better

Question 36

De groot

Answer 36

Looked at early chess in complex problems, used chess grand masters and 5 skilled chess players thought that the grand masters would think ahead but they did not however they did pick better moves, when asked to reconstruct the board they also did massively better then others by 95 percent

Question 37

Larkin et al

Answer 37

Looked at complex problems, suggested experts work towards a problem where as a novis will work backwards a means end analysis

Question 38

Chi et al

Answer 38

Looked at complex problems, found that novice will use surface knowledge but an expert would use deep structure knowledge. They also differed in quant active and qualitative, using more of a qualativie method

Question 39

Practice makes perfect

Answer 39

Complex problems
Ericsson et al
Said it can take 10 yrs but still not garentee
Need to look at what and how this is important

Question 40

Individual differences

Answer 40

Ppl r not just empty heads they come with built in knowledge
Poor and good learners
Thorndyke and stasz map reading study diff learners behaved in diff ways as to their technique

Question 41

Green and Gilhooly

Answer 41

Individual differences
Used statistic package with learners good learner used their own examples but a poor learner used the worked examples seems to suggest the learners are using meta cognition strategies

Question 42

What is the problem when looking at learning

Answer 42

Learning techniques is not problem solving

Question 43

Draper

Answer 43

All experts differ

Question 44

Evaluation point

Answer 44

Problem states become familiar over time
Recognition supports problem solving
But over time familiarity may lead to sub optional solutions being generated

Question 45

Helie and sun

Answer 45

Used four stages to problem solving in a more creative way
1 prep
2 incubation
3 illumination
4 verification

Question 46

Holding

Answer 46

Did a study on random chess positions and they had to remember
Found that recall was unrelated to skill level but evaluation skill was better