Problem 9 Flashcards
Correspondence theory of truth
Aristotle
States that truth is a property of a state and is achieved when the statement corresponds with the physical reality
Scepticism
Deny the existence of a physical reality, but denies that we can have reliable knowledge of it
Augustine’s view on knowledge
According to him true knowledge was based on Gods revelations
–> adopted Aristotles logic + sought to reconcile it with christian theology
The rise of the scientific approach can be summarized as a shift in balance from … to … ?
Deductive to inductive reasoning
–> before the scientific revolution deductive reasoning was generally accepted (Plato, Aristotle)
Bacon proposed the inductionist approach.
He also warned not to search exclusively for positive evidence.
What did he propose instead ?
One should make use of 3 types of tables
- Essence + Presence
- -> all instances in which the phenomenon is present - Deviation/Absence in Proximity
- -> comparing/matching the two tables - Degrees or Comparison
- -> instances in which the phenomenon is present in dif. degrees
Deductive reasoning
Starting from known statements, then deducing new conclusions
–> stressed in rationalism
ex.: children younger than 6 can’t speak
Hattie is 5
–> therefore Hattie can’t speak
Inductive reasoning
Conclusions are drawn on the basis of convergent observations
- -> conclusions aren’t necessarily true
- -> stressed in empiricism
Gradually natural philosophers started to argue that inductive reasoning could lead to conclusions as probable as truth if .. ?
- Facts were collected in large numbers + objectively
- Effects could be replicated
- Theories lead to new verifiable predictions
The fundamental antithesis of philosophy
(Whewell) + Comte
Stated that there is no clear distinction between observation + idea or fact + theory
–> they are closely connected and influence each other
Demarcation Criteria
Refer to the lines that would define science + its borders
–> used to define the specificity of science
Philosophy of science
Refers to a branch of science dealing with questions related to the status + uniqueness of science
Vienna Circle
Wiener Kreis
Was a group of scholars in Vienna that were logical positivists
–> found prominence with their publication of the “manifesto”
Logical positivism
Movement that tried to reconcile the practical success of sciences with the methodological cones formulated by philosophers
- -> put forward important demarcation criterion
- -> due to major criticism only had little impact
1929 Manifesto of the Vienna circle put forward important demarcation criterion.
Which were those ?
- Theres 2 types of truth: empirical + logical
- Empirical truths are established through EMPIRICAL VERIFICATION
- Logical truths are based on DEDUCTIVE REASONING
- Statement not belonging to one of the categories are meaningless
Empirical verification
Verificationism
States that a proposition is only meaningful if it can be verified as true or false through objective + value-free observation
–> was seen as the demarcation criterion of science
Criticisms on Empirical verification ?
- Verification is logically impossible
- -> inductive reasoning - Scientific theories are full of non observable variables
- Sometimes things aren’t observable until one knows how to search for them
- How should we define “observable” ?
What is the difference between science + non-science ?
Popper
Science: Based on facts + constantly questions its explanations
e.g.: observations + verifications
Non-science: Based on ideas
e.g.: dogmas, prejudices
Falsificationism
Popper
States that statements are only scientific if they can be falsified empirically
–> a theory would therefore rule out a range of outcomes
ex.: if a researcher repeatedly tried to reject a theory and failed, this would be strong evidence for the correctness
=> alternative to verificationism
Hypothetico - deductive method
Refers to a method that involves a combination of inductive + deductive reasoning
- A theory is formulated, on the basis of inductive reasoning
- A testable prediction/Hypothesis is formulated, on the basis of deductive reasoning
- -> to evaluate the correctness of theory - Prediction is put to falsification test
- -> provides new data from further theorizing
When does a theory reach high scientific status according to Popper ?
When the degree of falsifiability is high
–> the clearer + more precise a theory, the higher the status if it stands repeated falsification tests
Conformation bias
The tendency people have to search for evidence that confirm their opinions
–> goes against falsificationism
Should theories be thrown away as soon as they are falsified ?
No,
–> often times it is better to adapt an existing, good theory so that is is no longer contradicted by the available empirical evidence
BUT: modified theories should become more falsifiable
Ad hoc modifications
Refer to modifications that are not testable or made a theory less falsifiable
–> unacceptable
Why is falsification a better criterion than verification ?
Because it is logically possible to falsify a statement based on inductive reasoning
–> the more falsifiable, the better
What are the different stage of Kuhns theory of scientific progress
- Pre science
- -> discipline without a general theory - Normal science
- Crisis
- Scientific revolution
=> all scientific knowledge is relative + time-dependent
Stage of Normal science
- Theory is formed, which includes a paradigm
- Scientists solve puzzles within the paradigm + defend it
- Modifications have to stay within paradigm
Stage of crisis
- Anomalies have accumulated in normal science + modifications become increasingly adhoc
- This triggered crisis
- Scientists are now more open to an alternative
Scientific revolution
Occurs when an alternative to the old paradigm is found (paradigm shift)
- -> DRP is replaced by the PRP
- -> reason why scientific progress is not steady + cumulate
Paradigm
Refers to a set of common views of what the discipline is about + how the problems must be approached
–> start of science
Degenerative research programme (DRP)
Refers to a paradigm that doesn’t allow researchers to make new predictions
–> requires an increasing number of ad hoc modifications to account for the empirical findings
Progressive research programme (PRP)
Refers to a paradigm that allows researchers to make new unexpected predictions that can be tested empirically
Postmodernists
Movement that thought that science was in now way superior because it consists of social constructions made up by scientists
Social construction
Notion that states that scientific knowledge isn’t objective knowledge discovering the workings of an external reality
–> rather a story told by a particular scientific community on the basis of its language and culture
Pragmatism
Peirce
Human knowledge is info about how to cope with the world + arises from the interaction of the individual with the world
–> it arises from NEITHER realism nor idealism
Why was the pragmatic view overlooked for a long time ?
Doesnt draw a distinction between scientific + non-scientific knowledge
e.g.: demarcation criterion
George Boole
British mathematician/logician
- -> came up with a mathematical approach to logic
- -> developed the Binary system (Boolean logic) + “and”, “or”, “not” system
Claude Elwood Shannon
Was a mathematician that came up with the idea that information is quantifiable
–> came up with the binary digit (bit), which is the basic unit of info
John von Neumann
Mathematician that developed the computer model
–> wrote “The computer + the brain”
Alan Turing
Developed the “Bombe” machine to encode/intercept the messages Nazi Germany exchanged via the “Enigma” machine
–> ultimately largely contributed to the early ending of the war
Turing machine
It can describe any cognitive systems
–> this is where the brain-computer analogy arose
Peirce differentiated between 4 separate methods of knowledge acquisition.
Which were those ?
- Methode of tenacity
- -> holding assumptions + beliefs because they’ve been around for a long time - Method of authority
- -> forming opinions by consulting experts - A priori method
- -> using own logic to form opinions - Scientific method
How did the founders of psychology define the discipline ?
The study of the human mind with the Scientific method
–> claimed that as they used the scientific method it was science (Methodologism)
Methodolatry/
Methodologism
The tendency to see methodological rigor as the only requirement for scientific research, at the expense of theory formation
Why where people convinced that the scientific method was sufficient to make progress in psychology ?
Which where the factors that influenced the continued use of it ?
Science is …
- CUMULATIVE
- Stated in a way that its findings are UNDERSTANDABLE to anybody
- Able to PREDICT what will happen in the future
- REVISABLE
Pseudoscience
Refers to a branch of knowledge that pretends to be scientific but violates the scientific method on essential aspects
Does Psychology have relationship to other sciences ?
Yes,
It has strong links to 2 major areas (medicine + social sciences), therefore fully integrated within other scientific research
Why is psychology commonly not seen as a science ?
Due to the stereotypical view people have of psychologists
- they are usually seen as clinical psychologists treating patients
- their view of psychologists usually don’t overlap with their views of scientists
- Belief that everybody can come up with psychological findings as thy are easy to understand/common sense
What is the difference between a psychology researcher vs practitioner ?
Practitioners are merely users of scientific info, rather than creators of suck knowledge
–> never make use of the scientific method - only the others, therefore make use of their own intuition
Hermeneutics
Psychological branch that thought that
- Psychology should stay within the humanities
- Psychologists should interpret + understand people by closely studying their personal history
- -> rival of scientific method
- -> method that is more in agreement with the publics view of psychology
Dilthey distinguished between the “Naturwissenschaften” + “Geisteswissenschaften”.
For what reasons (4 elements) did Dilthey say that psychology belongs to the “Geisteswissenschaften” ?
Psychology deals with/should be dealing with
- CONTENT of the human mind
- Human EXPERIENCE in its totality
ex. : cognition, emotion etc - Human life within its CONTEXT
- UNDERSTANDING the human on three different levels
–> empathy, problem solving, hermeneutic level
Why did Psychoanalysis (Freud) use the hermeneutic approach instead of the scientific one ?
Because this approach tried to understand the content of the human mind through interpretation
–> hence Diltheys approach was more useful
Client centred approach
Rogers
Therapist should share the clients experiences but not interpret them
–> the role of the therapist is to be supportive not enlightening
=> alternative to Psychoanalysis
What was the criticism on experimental psychology ?
- Neglect of individual differences, as one tries to understand the functioning of the “average” person
- Seen as the result of the dominance of white western males
- -> feminist + postcolonial psychology - Ignores influences from society
- -> social construction - Critical psychology
- Claims of objectivity + universal validity are exaggerated
Humanistic psychology
Maslow + Rogers
Was a psychological movement that stressed that people are
- human
- inherently positive
- have free will + live in a socio-cultural context
–> alternative to psychoanalysis + behaviorism
Feminist Psychology
Aimed to understand women
–> particularly concerned with the way in which women are treated in mainstream psychology
Postcolonial Psychology
Adressed the issues of racism + the ways in which dominant groups treat other groups
Critical psychology
Movement of psychology that criticized psychology for failing to understand that
- Idealism isn’t true
- Scientific knowledge isn’t cumulative but consists of social constructions
- Its theories + claims have an impact on the world/people
- -> easily influence people
Unconscious plagiarism
Bornstein
Indicates how the scientific + hermeneutic method have influenced each other without the proponents being aware of it
–> hermeneutic approach is need in psychology
Probabilistic reasoning
Huygens
Determining how probable a theory was, given a series of observations
- -> deals with the inversed probability problem
- -> developed to defend the inductionist view
- -> precursor of statistics
Why should we trust in science ?
Trust in scientists is fundamental
–> can’t have science without trust
Model of Mayer
A trustee should possess:
- BENEVOLENCE
- -> acting in a beneficial interest for the truster - INTEGRITY
- -> Acting according to a set of rules acceptable to the truster
Epimestic Truth
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