Prelim Flashcards
is a science of behavior.
Psychology
take a scientific approach to understanding
behavior.
Psychologists
• As scientists, we rely on ___________ when conducting psychological research.
scientific methods
• Scientific methods include:
- specifying the conditions under which we make our observations;
- observing in a systematic and orderly way; and
- accepting or rejecting alternative explanations of behaviors on the basis of what we observe
Science comes from the Latin word Scientia, which simply means _________.
knowledge
What are the two meanings of Science
content and process
- is what we know (facts we learn).
Content of Science
- activity that includes systematic ways (gathering data, noting relationships, and offering explanations).
Science as process
consists of scientific techniques used to collect and evaluate psychological data.
Methodology
the facts and figures gathered in scientific studies.
Data
is a nonscientific data gathering that shapes one’s expectations and beliefs and directs one’s behavior toward others.
For example:
• Do birds of the same feather flock together?
• Do opposite attract?
• Absence makes the heart grow fonder
• Out of sight, is out of mind
Commonsense psychology
- is the nonscientific use of information to explain or predict behavior.
- When we understand other people’s behavior, there is a string bias to overlook situational data in favor of data that substantiate trait explanations.
• Example: When we notice a woman is sporting another new designer outfit, we conclude that she is vain about her appearance and spends money frivolously.
Nonscientific Inference
In this fallacy, people are not very good at using data to estimate the true probabilities of an event.
When we see that a certain slot machine has not paid off in a long time, we tend to believe that it is overdue for the payoff
Gambler’s fallacy,
In this situation we believe we know something, we tend to overlook instances that might disconfirm our beliefs, and we seek, instead, confirmatory instances of behavior.
• Example: If you believe that the full moon brings out psychotic behavior (the word lunacy comes from the Latin word for “moon”), you will notice and remember instances when people acted abnormally while the moon was full, and you will ignore many instances in which no unusual behavior occurred.
confirmation bias
• In this we believe that our predictions, guesses, and explanations tend to feel much more correct than they actually are, the more data we have available (accurate or not), the more confidence we have in our judgments about behavior.
• These and many other inferential biases exist in human information processing and believed to be the brain’s way of coping with an immense volume of information.
• They are shortcuts, and most of the time, allow us to function well enough but they are not always accurate.
overconfidence bias
What are the Characteristics of Modern Science?
- The Scientific Mentality
- Determinism
is an assumption that behavior must follow a natural order; therefore, it can be predicted.
(Alfred North Whitehead, 1861-1947)
The Scientific Mentality
He postulated that, the faith in an organized universe is essential to science. If no inherent order existed, there would be no point in looking for one and no need to develop methods in doing so.
Whitehead
is the belief that there are specifiable (although not necessarily simple or obvious) causes for the way people behave and that these causes can be discovered through research.
Determinism
- data that are observable and experienced.
Empirical data
He advocate the systematic observation and careful classification of naturally occurring events.
He argued that heavy objects fall faster than light objects because their “natural” place is down.
Aristotle
• Another important characteristic of empirical data is that it can be ____________ through investigation.
verified or disproved
He concluded that if we set up the proper testing conditions (testing objects in a vacuum), light objects will fall just as fast as heavy ones.
Galileo
are principles that have the generality to apply to all situations.
• Example:Kepler’slaw,Newton’slaw
Laws
• is an interim explanation; a set of related statements used to explain and predict phenomena.
Theory
integrate diverse data, explain behavior, and predict new instances of behavior.
- Theoryofevolution
Theories
is central feature of the scientific method.
approach to the collection and interpretation of data should be systematic, objective, and rational.
• It includes being open to new ideas even when they contradict our prior beliefs or attitudes
Good thinking
also known as Occam’s razor, is a guiding principle in scientific reasoning that suggests preferring the simplest explanation that adequately explains the observed data or phenomenon.
• In other words, when faced with multiple competing hypotheses, scientists often favor the one that is the most straightforward and requires the fewest assumptions, entities, or complexities
• Example: Crandall’s Social Contagion Model of Bulimia (1988):
In this scenario, Crandall proposed a social contagion model to explain the occurrence of bulimia, and the example suggests that this model was deemed more parsimonious than alternative explanations.
The principle of parsimony
He proposed that science advances by revising theories based on the “weight of evidence.”
• The more evidence that accumulates to support a particular explanation or theory, the more confidence we have that the theory is correct.
Karl Popper
This principle allows us to disprove statements using a single, contrary observation.
• We can never prove a statement because a contradictory observation might be found later.
• particularly useful in the scientific method because it allows scientists to disprove hypotheses or theories based on observations that contradict the predictions made by those hypotheses
The principle of modus tollens
is an exact or systematic repetition of a study. Also increases our confidence in experimental results by adding to the weight of supporting evidence.
, where researchers attempt to reproduce findings of others, is the second line of defense.
• Findings that are obtainable by only one researcher have very limited scientific value.
Replication
What are the four main objective of science are:
• Description
• Prediction
• Explanation
• Control
is a systematic and unbiased account of observed characteristics of behaviors.
Description
is a capability of knowing in advance when certain behaviors should occur.
Prediction
• is knowledge of the conditions that reliably produce a behavior.
Explanation
• is the application of what has been learned about the behavior
Control
is a research that is designed to solve real-world problems (like helping patients to deal with grief or improving employee morale).
Applied research
is a research designed to test theories or to explain psychological phenomena in humans and animals
Basic research
The Scientific Methods: Tools of Psychological Science
Observation
Measurement
Experimentation
is the systematic noting and recording of events. Only events that are observable can be studied scientifically.
Observation
Observations must be _________ so that there can be strong agreement among raters
objective
means that the procedures are consistently applied.
Systematic
assigns numbers to objects, events, or their characteristics. This is an inherent feature of quantitative research.
Measurement
They measured anger and depression using numerical scales.
Baron and colleagues (1985)
is the process we use to test the predictions we call hypothesis and establish cause-and-effect relationships. Also it is not always possible because our predictions must be testable.
Also requires that we create at least two treatment conditions and randomly assign subjects to these conditions.
Experimentation
We must be able to manipulate the _________ and measure its effect on the dependent variable.
independent variable
It concerns or technological limitations may prevent experimentation.
Ethical
• In psychology experiments, we control.________ so that we can measure “what we intend to measure.
extraneous variables
Experiments establish a _______, because causes must precede effects. However, not all prior events are causes.
temporal relationship
is any field of study that gives the appearance of being scientific, but has no true scientific basis and has not been confirmed using the scientific method.
pseudoscience
include past life, regression, reparenting, and rebirthing.
Modern pseudosciences
• Is a framework of values within which we conduct research.
Research Ethics
helps researchers identify actions we consider good and bad, and explain the principles by which we make responsible decisions in actual situations.
Ethics
• Are composed of laypeople and researchers, evaluate research proposals to make sure that they follow ethical standards.
• Protect the safety of research participants.
• Their first task is to decide whether a proposed study increases participants’ risk of injury since psychological research can cause physical and/or psychological discomfort.
will also help researchers estimate the degree of risk involved in their studies.
International Review Boards (IRBs)
Studies that place ______ increase the chance of harm compared with not participating in the study.
subjects at risk
do not increase the likelihood of injury.
• Minimal risk studies
Who should approve an “at risk” study when a risk/benefit analysis determines that risks to participants are outweighed by gains in knowledge.
- should safeguard the rights of individuals by making certain that each subject at risk gives informed consent to participate.
International Review Boards (IRBs)
given three important reasons why poorly designed research can be unethical:
- Students’, teachers’,and administrators time will be taken from potentially more beneficial educational experiences.
- Poorly designed research can lead to unwarranted and inaccurate conclusions that may be damaging to the society that directly or indirectly pays for the research.
- Allocating time and money to poor-quality science will keep those finite resources from better-quality science
Robert Rosenthal (1994)
means that the subject agrees to participate after having been fully informed about the nature of the study.
Informed consent
- Individuals must give their consent freely, without the use of force, duress, or coercion.
- They must be free to drop out of experiment at any time.
- Researchers must give subjects a full explanations of the procedures to be followed and offer to answer any questions
about them. - Researchers must make clear the potential risks and benefits of the experiment.
- Researchers must provide assurances that all data will remain private and confidential.
- Subjects may not be asked to release the researchers (or study sponsors, institutions, or other agents) from liability or to waive their legal rights in the case of injury.
Aspects of Informed Consent
• it should be obtained in writing, and subjects should receive a copy to keep.
• Whenever the subject is a minor or is cognitively impaired, researchers need to obtain this from a parent or legal guardian.
Consent
should be given as much explanation as they can understand and be allowed to refuse to participate, even though the parent or guardian has given permission.
Subjects
The assent or agreement of _______\______ and above is usually a requirement of their participation (also obtained from cognitively impaired subjects, both adults and children).
• Consent needs to be written in clear, understandable language at the appropriate reading level for participants. Merely allowing your subjects to read and sign the consent form.
minor children ages 7
To ensure that informed consent is really being obtained, researchers need to ____________ information that is important for the subjects.
• The consent form provides subjects with information relevant to their participation in the experiment: the nature of the experiment, an overview of the procedures that will occur, how long will it take, the potential risks and benefits, and what they will be required to do.
verbally reinforce
What are the Belmont Report Three Basic Ethical Principles:
- Respect for persons
- Beneficence
- Justice
This maintains that every human being is an autonomous person with the right to make his or her own decisions about research.
Respect for persons
an obligation to minimize risk of harm and maximize possible benefits to individuals.
Beneficence
fairness in both the burdens and benefits of research.
Justice
The APA publishes its own set of ethical standards (2002): The ________ applies to psychologists and students who assume the role of psychologists by engaging in research or practice.
code
The APA publishes its own set of ethical standards (2002):____________ are responsible for maintaining ethical standards in all research conducted by them or by others they supervise.
Psychologists conducting research
The APA publishes its own set of ethical standards (2002): When submitting an __________in journals published by either APA or APS, researchers are required to stipulate that these ethical standards have been followed.
article for publication
The APA publishes its own set of ethical standards (2002): The _________ include the same general requirements for ensuring subjects’ welfare as those that are set forth in civil law.
APA standards
may be used when it is the best way to obtain information. Also may not be used to minimize the participants’ perception of risk or exaggerate their perception of potential benefits.
• The experimenter should provide debriefing (full disclosure) after either their personal participation or the completion of the entire study.
Deception
•It involves explaining the true nature and purpose of the experiment.
•It is an essential component of good experimental research. We must offer our participants a full explanation of our study anytime that we use deception.
Debriefing
A ____________ is an experimenter’s accomplice.
• Use of this is deceptive because subjects are led to believe that the Also it is another subject, experimenter, or bystander, when he or she is actually part of the experimental manipulation.
confederate
means that subjects are not identified by name.
Anonymity
• means that data are securely stored and only used for the purpose explained to the subject.
Confidentiality
Researchers achieve anonymity by collecting data
• They achieve confidentiality by storing data in a locked safe and only using the data for the purposes explained to the participants
without names and assigning code numbers.
is the human care and treatment of animals.
Animal welfare
• Institutions that conduct animal research must establish an __________to evaluate animal research before it is conducted.
• They must determine that the researchers have explored all alternatives and have documented that there are no other feasible alternatives.
Institutional animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)
is the position that sensate (those that can feel pain and suffer) have equal value and rights to humans.
Animal rights
involves falsifying or fabricating data.
• Scientific fraud
A researcher’s graduation, tenure, promotion, funding, or reputation may motivate researchers to ___________
commit fraud.
The process filters submitted manuscripts so that only 15-20% of articles are printed.
peer review
by colleagues for scarce resources, while a cause of fraud, is the third line of defense.
Competition
is misrepresenting someone’s “ideas, words, or written words” as your own.
• also it is a form of fraud, in which an individual claims false credit for another’s ideas, words, or written work.
Plagiarism
credit should only be given to those who made a major contribution to the research or writing.
Authorship
should not take credit for the same research more than once.
Researchers
is to cite original publications when republishing data in a journal article or republishing journal articles in an edited volume.
ethical solution
is self-correcting as scientific explanations and theories are challenged, and revised or replaced.
Science
• helps researchers identify actions we consider good and bad, and explain the principles by which we make responsible decisions in actual situations.
Ethics
- Also called nonexperimental research, is a research that lacks the manipulation of the antecedent conditions/independent variable.
- They are used where experiments are not ethical or possible, or where we want to test hypotheses in realistic conditions.
Nonexperimental Designs
• Nonexperimental approaches do not create levels of an _______________ to these levels.
independent variable nor randomly assign subjects
• The degree to which a research design allows us to make causal statements between the independent and dependent variables.
• An _____________ experiment allows us to draw cause-and-effect conclusions.
Internal validity
Nonexperimental researches have __________ experimental researches have high internal validity.
low internal validity,
An experiment has ______________ when we can demonstrate that only the antecedent conditions are responsible for group differences in behavior.
high internal validit
are often higher in internal validity because of their control of extraneous variable
Laboratory experiments
Researchers create levels of the IV and use procedures like
matching and random assignment conditions.
It is the generalizability or applicability to people and situations outside the research setting.
• Nonexperimental studies are more frequently conducted in real-world settings with a more diverse sample of participants than experiments.
• Experimental researches have low external validity, some nonexperimental researches have high external validity.
External validity
do not create levels of an independent variable nor randomly assign subjects to these levels.
• They are used where experiments are not ethical or possible, or where we want to test hypotheses in realistic conditions.
Nonexperimental approaches
• Nonexperimental researches have low internal validity, experimental researches have
high internal validity.
• An ______ allows us to draw cause-and-effect conclusions.
internally valid experiment
An experiment has high internal validity when we can demonstrate that only the __________ are responsible for group differences in behavior.
antecedent conditions
• Nonexperimental studies are more frequently conducted in _______ with a more diverse sample of participants than experiments.
real-world settings
