finals Flashcards
an explanation of a relationship between two or more variables.
Hypothesis
tentative explanation of an event or a behavior. It is a statement that predicts the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable.
Experimental Hypothesis
predicts how variables (events, traits, or behaviors) might be correlated, but not causally related.
Non Experimental Hypothesis
When we state a hypothesis, we then gather data that either ______________ it.
support or contradict
a hypothesis must be capable of being true or false, which is a property of ?
synthetic statements
is _______ when it can be assessed by manipulating an IV and measuring the results on the DV.
testable
Without this, we cannot evaluate the validity of hypothesis.
testability
allows us to focus our attention on the main factors that influence our dependent variable.
simple hypothesis
means that we prefer a simple hypothesis over one requiring many supporting assumptions.
Parsimony
is reasoning from specific cases to general principles to form a hypothesis.
Induction
Researchers use inductive reasoning to construct theories by creating explanations that account for empirical data.
The Inductive Model
is reasoning from general principles to specific predictions. This approach is used to test the assumptions of a theory.
Deduction
what are the five ways to helps review of prior experiments, Building on Prior Research?
■ Identifies questions that have not been conclusively answered or addressed at all
■ Suggests new hypotheses
■ Identifies additional variables that could mediate an effect
■ Identifies problems other researchers have experienced
■Helps avoid duplication of prior research when replication is not intented
A scientist who is open to unexpected results and who is sufficiently informed can understand the significance of unexpected findings.
However, a dogmatic scientist would be less likely to “see” or appreciate the significance of serendipitous events.
Serendipity and the Windfall Hypothesis
who is open to unexpected results and who is sufficiently informed can understand the significance of unexpected findings.
scientist
would be less likely to “see” or appreciate the significance of serendipitous events.
a dogmatic scientist
is knowing without reasoning, or unconscious problem-solving. It guides what we choose to study in an experiment.
must be directed by our literature review.
Intuition
provides a selective review of research findings related to the research hypothesis.
The Introduction section
This section identifies which questions have not been definitively answered by previous studies and helps show how your experiment advances knowledge in this area.
Searching the Research Literature
the average effect size of an independent variable across studies that share similar methodologies.
meta-analysis measures
helps establish the strength and external validity of a causal relationship.
statistical procedure
the variable (antecedent condition) an experimenter intentionally manipulates.
An experiment requires at least two levels.
Independent Variable
experiment is confounded when the value of an extraneous variable systematically changes along with the independent variable. true/false
true
nonexperiment is confounded when the value of an extraneous variable systematically changes along with the independent variable. true/false
false
the outcome measure the experimenter uses to assess the change in behavior produced by the independent variable.
depends on the value of the independent variable.
Dependent Variable
Specifies the exact meaning of a variable in an experiment by defining it in terms of observable operations, procedures, and measurements.
Operational definition
specifies the exact procedure for creating values of the independent variable.
Experimental operational definition
specifies the exact procedure for measuring the dependent variable.
Measured operational definition
What type of scale assigns items to categories without measuring magnitude?
assigns items to two or more distinct categories that can be named using a shared feature, but does not measure their magnitude.
Example: you can sort canines into friendly and shy categories.
Nominal Scale
Which scale measures magnitude using ranks?
measures the magnitude of the dependent variable using ranks, but does not assign precise values.
Ordinal Scale
measures magnitude with equal intervals between values.
measures the magnitude of the dependent variable using equal intervals between values with no absolute zero point.
Example: degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit and Sarnoff and Zimbardo’s (1961) 0-100 scale.
Interval Scale
Equal intervals and an absolute zero.
measures the magnitude of the dependent variable using equal intervals between values and an absolute zero.
This scale allows us to state that 2 meters are twice as long as 1 meter.
Ratio Scale
The consistency of operational definitions and measurements.
Reliability
degree to which observers agree in their measurement of the behavior.
Example: the degree to which three observers agree when scoring the same personal essays for optimism.
Inter Reliability
It measure the consistency of an individual’s scores across multiple administrations of the same test.
degree to which a person’s scores are consistent across two or more administrations of a measurement procedure.
Test-retest Reliability
- The consistency of different parts of a test measuring the same variable.
measures the degree to which different parts of an instrument (questionnaire or test) that are designed to measure the same variable achieved consistent results.
Inter-item Reliability
operational definition accurately manipulates the independent variable or measures the dependent variable.
Validity
The extent to which a test appears to measure what it claims to measure
measurement technique is self-evident. This is the least stringent form of validity.
example, using a ruler to measure pupil size.
Face Validity
The extent to which a measurement procedure samples the content of the variable being measured.
how accurately a measurement procedure samples the content of the dependent variable.
Example: an exam over chapters 1-4 that only contains questions about chapter 2 has poor content validity.
Content Validity
The accuracy of a measurement procedure in predicting future performance.
Predictive Validity
The accuracy with which an operational definition represents a construct.
how accurately an operational definition represents a construct.
Example: a construct of abusive parents might include their perception of their neighbors as unfriendly.
Construct Validity
The degree to which changes in the DV are due to the IV.
Internal Validity
What occurs when an extraneous variable changes systematically across conditions?
Example: a study comparing the effects of meditation and prayer on blood pressure would be confounded if one group exercise more.
Confounding
Changes in the DV due to an event outside the experiment.
occurs when an event outside the experiment threatens internal validity by changing the dependent variable.
Example: subjects in group A were weighed before lunch while those in group B were weighed after lunch.
History Threat
Physical or psychological changes in the subject affecting the DV.
produced when physical or psychological changes in the subject threaten internal validity by changing the DV.
Example: boredom may increase subject errors on a proofing task (DV).
Maturation Threat
Changes in the measurement instrument affecting internal validity
when changes in the measurement instrument or measuring procedures threatens internal validity.
Example: if reaction time measurements became less accurate during the experimental than other control conditions
Instrumental Threat
When subjects are assigned based on extreme scores and retested.
Statistical Regression Threat
When individual differences are not balanced across conditions.
when individual differences are not balanced across treatment conditions by the assignment procedures.
Example: despite random assignment, subjects in the experimental group were more extroverted than those in the control group.
Selection Threat
When subjects drop out of experimental conditions at different rates.
when subjects drop out of experimental conditions at different rates.
Example: even if subjects in each group started out with comparable anxiety scores, drop out could produce differences on this variable.
Subject Morality Threat
When selection threat combines with another threat.
when a selection threat combines with at least one other threat (history, maturation, statistical regression, subject mortality, or testing).
Selection Interactions
APA research report describes the Participants, Apparatus or Materials, and Procedures of the experiment.
This section provides the reader with sufficient detail (who, what, when, and how) to exactly replicate your study.
Method Section
The former specifies the procedure for creating values of the IV, the latter specifies the procedure for measuring the DV.
difference between an experimental operational definition and a measured operational definition
The extent to which an operational definition accurately measures or manipulates the variables.
Validity refer to in an experiment
The consistency of a test over time.
Interrater reliability
What is described in the Method section of an APA research report?
Participants,
apparatus,
materials,
and procedures.
When the equipment is unique or needs detailed explanation.
Apparatus section appropriate in an APA research report
