PRACTICAL 1 Flashcards
plasma
55%
erythrocytes
45%
leukocytes
3x larger than RBC, around body tissues and in blood
granulocytes
neutrophils eosinophils basophils
agranulocytes
lymphocytes monocytes
neutrophil
abundant multilobed nuclei
eosinophil
red or pink, bilobed nuclei
basophil
black granules, bilobed nucleus
lymphocytes
large/round nuclei
monocytes
kidney shaped nuclei
sickle cell anemia
crescent shaped RBC inherited hemoglobin B chain mutation less O2 carrying capacity, lack production of RBC
sickle cell anemia hematocrit
less than normal because of decreased RBC production
polycythemia
RBC more packed together, overactivity of EPO or testosterone/ decrease in plasma high bp or clots from viscosity
infectious mononucleosis
atypical lymphocytes with abnormal nuclei, unusual shapes of cells, cytoplasmic skirting
polycythemia hematocrit
higher than normal due to overproduction of RBC
leukemia
unregulated overproduction of immature leukocytes
myelogenous leukemia
bone marrow
lymphocytic leukemia
lymphocytes
leukemia hematocrit
lower than normal
compensated blood loss hematocrit
lower, plasma increases because of water retention
dehydration hematocrit
higher, less plasma
doping hematocrit
higher, more RBC
codominance
A + B antigens can be present
hemagglutination
antibodies bind to 2 RBC which creates clumping can cause hemolysis and mass immune response
igG antibody
Rh blood; antigen-antibody, crosses placenta only AFTER exposure
IgM antibody
doesn’t cross placenta
hemolytic disease
mother does not have Rh antibody in 1st pregnancy; develops Rh antibody during delivery from hemorrhage; second child blood gets agglutinated from Rh-AB crossing placenta leads to anemia, jaundice
hemoglobin levels
men: 13-18 women: 11-16
hematocrit levels
men: 47 Women: 42
low hematocrit and low hemoglobin
anemia
normal hematocrit and low hemoglobin
anemia
tunica intima
endothelium
tunica media
smooth muscle for vasoconstriction
tunica externa
areolar connective tissue
lumen of arteries
narrow
lumen of veins
wide
cross section of arteries
circular if cut
cross section of veins
collapses when cut
wall thickness of arteries
thicker
wall thickness of veins
thinner
elasticity of arteries
very elastic
elasticity of veins
not elastic
valves in arteries?
no valve
valves in veins?
yes:)
normal cardiac tissue
branching, striations, centrally located nuclei, intercalated discs
myocardial infarction
heart attack from one of the arteries being blocked loss of striation, dead myocytes lose nuclei, blood supply disrupted, lots of leukocytes
atherosclerosis
large deposition of lipids and debris, impairs blood flow and oxygen to myocardium leading to coronary artery disease and heart attack
atherosclerosis path
lipids –> fatty streaks + fibrous tissue and muscle –> fibrous plaques + calcium + cholesterol –> restricted flow
human electrocardiogram
measures electrical activities of the heart from the electrodes attached to the outer surface of the skin
sinoatrial node
pacemaker cells that propagate AP through muscle fibers of atria
AV node
connection between atria and ventricular muscle, serves as backup pacemaker, slow
lead
pair of electrodes; each lead detects the projection of the actual wave from a different angle
ECG
electrical activities recorded from a lead
positive vector
+ from - to + - from + to -
negative vector
+ from + to - - from - to +
Einthoven’s triangle set up
negative: right arm
ground: right leg
positive: left
mean electrical axis
can indicate myocardial damage + ventricular activation changes
why does the t wave have a positive deflection?
repolarization process are assigned a negative charge, and the direction of repolarization is negative
what is the relationship b/w ECG and start of pulse wave and maximum height of pulse?
start occurs during ventricular repolarization and max occurs during atrial depolarization
relationship between ECG and pulse rate
time is the same, starts and ends at atrial depolarization
blood flow in heart
blood into the vena cava, right atria, right ventricle, pulmonary arteries, pulmonary veins to left atria, left ventricle to aorta
blood flow from ascending aorta
aortic arch brachiocephalic trunk left common carotid left subclavian artery
descending thoracic aorta
celiac trunk superior mesenteric artery inferior mesenteric artery right and left renal arteries common iliac arteries
>100 bpm
tachycardia
<60bpm
bradycardia
ST interval above isoelectric
myocardial infarction
ST interval below isoelectric
cardiac ischemia
No p wave, no QRS
V fib with A systole
No p wave, wide irregular QRS
aberrant AF ventricular
No P wave, wide regular QRS
ventricular rhythm
No P wave, narrow irregular QRS
atrial fibrilation
no p wave, narrow regular QRS
atrial junctional
abnormal P wave 300bpm
atrial flutter
normal p wave, QRS never related
3* AV block ventricular standstill
normal p wave, sometimes QRS related
2* AV block
normal p wave, related to QRS, long PR interval
1* AV block
normal p wave, related to QRS, normal PR interval
normal sinus rhythm
subclavian artery
supplies blood to arms
axillary artery
supplies blood to pectoral muscles
brachial artery
supplies blood to arm and elbow
common carotid
supplies blood to head and neck (left not in sheep)
celiac trunk
supplies blood to stomach, duodenum, liver, spleen
superior mesenteric artery
supplies blood to small intestine, pancreas, some large intestine
renal arteries
supplies blood to kidneys for filtering
internal iliac arteries
supplies blood to pelvic area
external iliac arteries
supplies blood to lower limbs
inferior mesenteric artery
supplies blood to large intestine
why do the R wave and the maximum height of finger pulse not overlap?
the electrical signal precedes the mechanical event and then it takes time for the signal to reach the fingertip
P wave and T wave above the baseline?
myocardial infarction
what distinguishes the left & right brachiocephalic vein?
left is longer because crosses body to the right atrium
what does the groove on the internal jugular vein indicate?
HELP
where does the subclavian artery end & the axillary artery begin
armpit
what is the vessel to the right of the ascending aorta?
pulmonary trunk - delivers deoxy blood to the lungs
what are the white spots at the bifurcation of the descending aorta into the common iliacs?
fat deposits that suggest atherosclerosis of descending aorta
differences in frog and human heart
human: 4 chambers frog: 3 human: SA and AV node frog: SV node
trabeculae
muscle strands & cords, give ventricle a spongy texture, provide site of attachment for papillary muscles, reduces suction, limits blood mixing
spiral folds
help guides blood flow from the atria to the systemic and pulmocutaneous arteries
deoxy blood in frogs
goes to lungs and skin
oxy blood in frogs
goes to brain and internal tissues
temperature with cardiac function
Q10
Q10
temperature coefficient measure of how much the rate of a biological process increases with temperature change of 10* usually between 2-3
increase in ex. K+
depolarizes slightly, increased HR then decrease
increase in ex. Ca2+
obvious increase in force, little to no inc. in HR
sympathetic innervation
norepinephrine/ isuprel
isuprel
increased HR + contractile force (B1AR)
parasympathetic innervation
Ach
Ach
decreased HR + contractile force (M2)
atropine
cholinergic antagonist (prevents activation of M2)
atropine then Ach
normal HR & force (plant alkaloid blocks M2)
frank-sterling law
length-tension of an intact heart; with additional blood, volume stretches the muscle tissue so the heart contracts more forcefully & ejects
why is there a delay between the atrial and ventricular contractions?
because the depol wave starts in the SV and first travels through the atria. then the depol is transmitted to the AV which slows spread of depol due to limited connections and small fiber diameters
what effects do isuprel and ach have on the heart?
opposite; isuprel increases HR and contractile force, Ach decreases HR and contractile force
what receptor does atropine block to increase HR?
M2
digitalis
increases force of contraction because increases ca2+ concentrations intracellularly
beer’s law
linear relationship between concentration of a solute in a sample and the absorbance of light
absorbance =
e x l x c
e
molar extinction coefficient
l
optimal path through cuvette
c
concentration of sample
intensity equation
I = Io (10^-elc)
I
light final intensity
Io
light initial intensity (incident light)
tense hemoglobin
low affinity, less receptive to O2
relaxed hemoglobin
high affinity, more receptive to O2
cooperativity
gives sigmoidal curve; each successive bound O2 changes conformation of subunit, making it more receptive; allows more efficient unloading and loading of O2 within the physiological range of partial pressures
P50
when hemoglobin is 50% saturated with oxygen
right shift
lower affinity for O2, O2 release, P50 increase
right shift conditions
increase CO2 increase acidity increase DPG increase exercise increase temperature
calculating % hemoglobin saturation
(A-B)/(A-C) x 100
A
absorbance at deoxy
B
absorbance at each pressure reduction
C
absorbance at oxy
what does a higher absorbance value mean for blood
the saturation of hemoglobin is increased, therefore it is more deoxygenated
lymphatic system functions
maintain fluid balance participate in immune responses absorption of lipids from digestive tract
lymphatic system circulation
capillaries to vessels to ducts to blood circulation at subclavian veins
primary lymph organs
where immune cells are generated and mature bone marrow and thymus
bone marrow
b cell maturation
thymus
t cell maturation
secondary lymph organs
sites where mature cells aggregate and initiate immune response spleen and lymph nodes
thymus
lobules and hassall’s corpuscles
lobules: dark outer cortex
developing T cells, clonal expansion
light medulla
hassall’s corpuscles and epithelia that select against self-reactive T-cells
spleen
largest mass of lymphoid tissue, storage site for platelets
spleen functions
filters blood (removes old RBC and platelets from circulation) helps initiate immune response (reacts to blood borne antigens by producing antibodies from local b cells)
spleen: capsule and trabeculae
connective tissue and smooth muscle which provide support
spleen: red pulp
vascular (sinusoid capillaries), allows old blood cells to leak out; old and damaged cells are phagocytosed by macrophages
spleen: white pulp
contains lymphoid aggregations, mostly lymphocytes and macrophages around arteries; lymphocytes are Th cells and AB producing B cells
spleen: white pulp: germinal center
mature B cell proliferation, differentiation, AB production somatic hypermutation and isotype switching center
antigen
molecule on surface of pathogens specific to that pathogen
pathogens
any infectious agent the immune system recognizes as foreign to self
bacteria
salmonella; can have adhesion molecule on surface or secrete exotoxins
viruses
HIV, flu; glycoproteins on surface
fungi
candida albicans
parasites
protozoa, worms
lymphocytes
T cells B cells
T cells
helper T cells cytotoxic T cells
Th (CD4)
secrete cytokines that regulate the functions of cells of the immune system
Tc (CD8)
directly kill cells infected with viruses and tumor cells
B cells
produce circulating antibodies
antibody pathway
- infection of pathogen 2. b cells detect antigen on pathogen in lymphoid organs 3. b cells differentiate into plasma cells and produce and secrete antibodies
indirect ELISA
detects antibodies made in response to pathogen uses 2* antibody conjugated to signal generating enzyme
indirect ELISA examples
HIV, lyme disease, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)
direct ELISA
detects antigens directly uses a 1* antibody conjugated to a signal generating enzyme
direct ELISA examples
HCG pregnancy test, E.Coli, animal feeds, human stool
hemolytic plaque assay
detects antibody producing plasma cells
hemolytic plaque assay proceure
inject sheep red blood cells into mouse remove spleen harvest cells SRBC + complement pokes holes in membrane (upon binding to anti-sheep antibody, complement protein pokes holes to kill cells)
complement system pathway
C3B protein membrane attack protein complex (MAC)
C3B
allows macrophage attachment to pathogen, facilitating phagocytosis, initiates formation of MAC
MAC
large pore that inserts into the membrane of the pathogen and promotes lysis by allowing cellular contents to spill out death of RBC, visible gaps/plaques in blood smear

basophil

neutrophil

eosinophil

lymphocyte

monocyte

sickle cell anemia

infectious mononucleosis

polycythemia

leukemia
1

right atria
2

left atria
3

right ventricle
4

left ventricle
5

aorta
6

chordae tendinae
7

bicuspid valve
8

tricuspid valve
9

septum
10

pulmonary semilunar valve
11

aortic valve

myocardial infarction
blood flow from the heart
pulmonary trunk
pulmonary arteries
aortic arch
brachiocephalic trunk
left common carotid
descending thoracic aorta
blood flow to upper limbs
subclavian arteries
axillary arteries
brachial arteries
radial arteries
abdominal blood flow
descending abdominal aorta
celiac trunk
superior mesenteric artery
inferior mesenteric artery
blood flow to lower limbs
common iliac arteries
internal iliac, external iliac
femoral arteries
venous return to the heart
internal jugular veins
brachiocephalic veins
superior and inverior vena cava
venous return to upper limbs
subclavian veins
axillary veins
brachial veins
basilic veins
cephalic veins
venous return from the abdomen
hepatic portain vein
hepatic veins
inferior vena cava
renal veins
venous return from lower limbs
common iliac veins
internal iliac veins
external iliac veins
femoral vein
great saphenous vein