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Physiology & Neurobiology 2274 > PNB 2274 Exam 4 TANNER/CHEN > Flashcards

PNB 2274 Exam 4 TANNER/CHEN Flashcards

1
Q

rectus muscles

A

left, right, up, down

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2
Q

oblique muscles

A

angular directions

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3
Q

abducens

A

lateral rectus

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4
Q

trochlear

A

superior oblique

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5
Q

cornea

A

shields eye from germs and dust, focuses light onto retina

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6
Q

iris

A

colored disc; separates cornea from lens

creates anterior and posterior chamber

aperture for light

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7
Q

anterior chamber

A

between cornea and iris

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8
Q

posterior chamber

A

between iris and lens

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9
Q

eye color pigments

A

melanin, lipochrome

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10
Q

melanin

A

brown color

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11
Q

lipochrome

A

gold tone

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12
Q

no pigment in iris

A

pink from blood vessels

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13
Q

some pigment in iris

A

blue from radiscattering

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14
Q

sphincter pupillae

A

contracts to make pupil small

parasympathetic

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15
Q

dilator pupillae

A

relaxes to dilate eye

sympathetic

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16
Q

relaxed ciliary muscle

A

ligaments taut, lens stretched, refracts less light

distance

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17
Q

contracted ciliary msucle

A

ligaments loose, lens relaxed, more refraction of light

close focus

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18
Q

lens

A

adjust focus to near and far

provides mode of transduction for muscle contraction

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19
Q

aqueous humor

A

water fluid, refracts light

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20
Q

vitreous humor

A

gelatinous collagen fibers, maintains pressure of eye

hyaluronic acid gives structure; peripheral cells, inorganic salts, ascorbic acid

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21
Q

fovea

A

many cones

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22
Q

macula

A

with fovea; area of highest visual acuity due to cone density

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23
Q

macula degeneration

A

lack of blood flow that causes blindness

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24
Q

optic disc

A

nerve entry point; blind spot due to no sensory cells

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25
Q

pigments

A

absorb light; melanin keeps photons from bouncing around

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26
Q

cones

A

detect light and color; day vision

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27
Q

cone pigment

A

opsin
3 visual pigments named by peak absorption
red, green, blue

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28
Q

red/green colorblindness

A

loss of red gene, perception of yellow and orange as green

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29
Q

rods

A

light intensity, sensitive to scattered light; night vision

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30
Q

rod pigment

A

rhodopsin = opsin and retinal

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31
Q

inactive (in dark) rhodopsin

A

11-cis

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32
Q

active (in light) rhodopsin

A

11-trans

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33
Q

rod cells in the dark

A 
rhodopsin inactive
cGMP levels high
CNG channels open
membrane depolarizing
NT released
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34
Q

depth perception

A

when light hits 2D surface, there are 2 cues for 3D:

monocular, binocular

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35
Q

monocular cue for depth perception

A

determines distance

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36
Q

binocular cue for depth perception

A

stereopsis; relative positions

based on retinal disparity

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37
Q

horizontal cells

A

large receptive fields

allows eyes to adjust to light from lateral inhibition

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38
Q

amacrine cells

A

producing type M cells and integrates rods and cones with bipolar cells

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39
Q

bipolar cells

A

brightness and color contrast; graded response; two types

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40
Q

why do bipolar cells use graded responses?

A

graded potentials are important because light intensity varies whereas regular AP is all or none

Varying light allows varying depolarization with varying vesicular release of NT

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41
Q

on bipolar cells

A

depolarization/ responsive in light
glutamate hyperpolarizes

light hits rods; rods release less NT; stops hyperpolarization; bipolar cell is now active

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42
Q

off bipolar cells

A

hyperpolarization in light
glutamate depolarizes

darkness hits rods; rods release a lot of NT; bipolar cell depolarizes and is active

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43
Q

lateral geniculate nucleus

A

4 parvi layers, a copule magni layers
point to point projection from retina to LGN

3 parallel pathways

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44
Q

3 parallel pathways in LGN

A

m-blob pathway
p-blob pathway
p-interblob pathway

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45
Q

m-blob pathway

A

rod pathway

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46
Q

p-blob pathway

A

color perception (cone) pathway

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47
Q

p-interblob pathway

A

depth, form (cone) pathway

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48
Q

primary visual cortex (striate; V1)

A

2D primal sketch; no color, depth, or form

simple cortical cells, complex cortical cells

two streams:
dorsal and ventral

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49
Q

simple cortical cells

A

perceives bars

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50
Q

complex cortical cells

A

perceives other stimuli with wider fields; more preference for orientation

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51
Q

dorsal stream

A

where pathway
motion

towards upper portion of head

motion and eye movement to inferior parietal lobe

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52
Q

ventral stream

A

what pathway
form and color

towards side of head

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53
Q

inferior temporal lobe (V4)

A

form and color

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54
Q

medial temporal lobe

A

motion processing

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55
Q

association visual cortex (extrastriate)

A

25 higher visual processing areas

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56
Q

inferior temporal cortex

A

facial recognition

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57
Q

achromatopia

A

color can be sensed but there is no comprehension of it

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58
Q

sound wave

A

pressure waves impinging on the air which creates a compression wave which is perceived as sound

characterized by frequency and intensity

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59
Q

frequency

A

how often the waves strike the air
directly related to pitch
measured in hertz

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60
Q

frequencies humans can hear

A

20-20kHz

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61
Q

intensity

A

loudness; amplitude of sound waves

measured in decibles

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62
Q

external ear (pinna)

A

funnels sound into ear canal

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63
Q

middle ear

A

auditory ossicles

incus, stapes, malleus

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64
Q

auditory ossicles

A

force multiplier; deal with impedance mismatch and transduce air waves into water waves

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65
Q

process of sound transmission

A

air vibrates tympanic membrane which are amplified and transduced by auditory ossicles into water waves; this fluid vibrates the oval window of the cochlea; first travels through the vestibular canal, then tympanic, towards round window

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66
Q

impedence

A

difference in how medias conduct waves

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67
Q

impedance mismatch

A

difference in how readily the different media conduct waves

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68
Q

cochlea

A

uses hair cells to transduce waves into electrochemical signal and connects to auditory nerve

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69
Q

semicircular canals

A

balance and sense of accelleration

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70
Q

vestibular apparatus

A

balance and accelleration

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71
Q

oval and round window

A

membranes to prevent leaks

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72
Q

3 canals/ ducts in cochlea

A

tympanic, vestibular, cochlear

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73
Q

cochlear duct

A

organ of corti;
fundamental hearing organ
basilar membrane and hair cells

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74
Q

basilar membrane

A

thick and thin at different ends and can vibrate at different frequencies

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75
Q

inner hair cells

A

sensory receptors

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76
Q

outer hair cells

A

increase amplitude and sound clarity

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77
Q

tympanic reflex

A

very loud sounds (high amplitude) can cause damage

reflex: the tensor tympani and stapedius muscle contract and put a limit on the tympanic membrane vibration to limit sound transmission

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78
Q

kinocilium

A

peak stereocilium; moved with tectorial membrane

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79
Q

when stereocilium bend towards the kinocilium…

A

cell depolarizes from mechanical opening of nonselective cation channels

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80
Q

when stereocilium bend away from the kinocilium…

A

cell hyperpolarizes from the mechanical closing of nonselective cation channels and K+ leak channels dominate

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81
Q

endolymph

A

hair on the hair cell fluid; 80mV, high K+ concentration (calcium is low because it degrades tip links)

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82
Q

Perilymph

A

hair CELL fluid; 0mv; low K+ concentration

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83
Q

cochlear duct

A

scala media

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84
Q

vestibular canal

A

scala vestibuli

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85
Q

tympanic canal

A

scala tympani

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86
Q

upward phase of basilar membrane

A

tip links open; depolarization; excitation of sensory neurons

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87
Q

downward phase of basilar membrane

A

tip links close; hyperpolarization

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88
Q

frequency coding

A

physical mechanism for sound transmission

low frequencies: vibrates helicotroma region because it is thinner and less rigid

high frequencies: vibrates close to oval window

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89
Q

labeled line system

A

neurons that make contact with hair cells at/near oval window are tagged to represent a different frequency than neurons

tonotopic map

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90
Q

alternating current (AC)

A

up to 1000 Hz; high fidelity

300 Hz = 300x depolarization

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91
Q

direct current (DC)

A

2000 Hz and up; low fidelity because baseline is more depolarized and depolarization is therefore more favorable

92
Q

direct current (DC)

A

2000 Hz and up; low fidelity because baseline is more depolarized and depolarization is therefore more favorable

93
Q

intensity coding

A

frequency of AP is proportional to loudness

rate coding: neuron firing is indicative of intensity

94
Q

phase lock firing

A

cannot fire at high frequencies, so hair cells will respond but neuron will fire at intervals

95
Q

PRIMARILY how will neurons rate code at frequencies LESS than 1000Hz?

A

via the labeled line system and AC with high fidelity

96
Q

PRIMARILY how will neurons rate code at frequencies HIGHER than 2000Hz?

A

via the labeled line system and DC with less fidelity (and phase lock firing)

97
Q

somatic nervous system

A

conscious control of motor output; voluntary

98
Q

brainstem pathway

A

indirect; subcortical

alters motor neuron sensitivity and activates feedback loops

axial and proximal muscle control: posture and equilibrium

99
Q

brainstem pathway tracts

A

rubrospinal
tectospinal
vestibulospinal
reticulospinal

100
Q

rubrospinal tract

A

stems from red nucleus; excites flexor and inhibits extensor; movement of limbs (arm, leg)

101
Q

tectospinal tract

A

stems from superior colliculus; visual reflexes and orienting the eye and head towards visual stimuli

102
Q

vestibulospinal tract

A

stems from vestibular nucleus; balance and orientation

103
Q

reticulospinal tract

A

stems from reticular formation; posture and balance

104
Q

corticospinal pathway

A

direct; pyramidal (decussation in medulla)

rapid and fine movements of distal extremities

105
Q

corticospinal pathway tracts

A

lateral corticospinal tract
anterior corticospinal tract
corticobulbar pathway

106
Q

lateral corticospinal tract

A

skilled movements in the limbs (fingers)

107
Q

anterior corticospinal tract

A

innervates axial skeletal muscle; extra source of control

108
Q

corticobulbar pathway

A

voluntary control of head and neck muscle

not in spinal cord

109
Q

dorsolateral pathway

A

control of limbs; fine motor control; skilled movements

rubrospinal, lateral corticospinal

110
Q

ventromedial pathway

A

axial and proximal muscle, posture, balance, equilibrium

reticulospinal, tectospinal, anterior corticospinal, vestibulospinal

111
Q

motor regions of cerebral cortex

A

primary motor cortex (M1)
secondary motor areas
association areas

112
Q

primary motor cortex (M1)

A

direction and speed; sends “go” signal

113
Q

secondary motor areas

A

planning

SMA and premotor

114
Q

supplementary motor area (SMA)

A

bilateral movement

115
Q

premotor cortex

A

mirror neurons (allows you to learn how to use a tool before actually touching it)

116
Q

association areas

A

prefrontal cortex

parietal cortex

117
Q

parietal cortex

A

goal/target location; hand- eye coordination

118
Q

spinal cord motor disorders: quadriplegia

A

paralysis of all limbs

119
Q

spinal cord motor disorders: paraplegia

A

paralysis of lower limbs

120
Q

motor cortex disorders: hemiplegia

A

paralysis of contralateral limbs (M1 damage)

121
Q

motor cortex disorders: hemiparesis

A

weakness, impaired control of contralateral limbs (SMA damage)

122
Q

motor cortex disorders:

secondary / association motor areas

A

apraxia

123
Q

apraxia

A

loss of ability to generate coordinated actions; stroke of premotor or parietal, left hemisphere lesions

124
Q

praxis: outcome of tapping experiments

A

dominant hand generates better movement

125
Q

praxis: outcome of sequential tapping experiments

A

right hand generates better movement

126
Q

why did the right hand generate better sequential tapping movements?

A

hemisphere lateralization: left brain controls the right hand

127
Q

hierarchy of motor control

A
  1. Parietal (uses spatial info to develop action goal)
  2. Premotor / SMA (translates goal into movement trajectory)
  3. Primary motor cortex (translates plan into motor command)
  4. Spine (activates muscles and maintains reflexes)
128
Q

basal nuclei

A

modulates motor output to prevent unwanted movement

129
Q

parkinson’s disease

A

loss of dopaminergic neurons which excites both pathways

fixed by L-dopa (dopamine)

130
Q

characteristics of parkinson’s disease

A

rigidity, slow movement, parkinsonian mask, hands do stuff

131
Q

huntington’s disease

A

destruction of indirect pathway in basal ganglia

132
Q

characteristics of huntington’s disease

A

abnormal involuntary movement because more excitatory; huntington’s chorea

133
Q

afferent neurons

A

neurons going towards the CNS

134
Q

efferent neurons

A

neurons going away from CNS

135
Q

what was the activity in monkeys about?

A

electrical activity was recorded in the M1 in monkeys during reaching movements

finding: when moving hand to the right, neurons don’t fire; when moving hand to the left, they do fire
significance: cells have a preferred direction; tells you which neurons fire during specific directions and you can stimulate these neurons to command movements

136
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

efferent innervation of tissues other than skeletal; involuntary

137
Q

sympathetic autonomic nervous system division

A

fight or flight

lumbar and thoracic spine nuclei

overall excitatory

short pre ganglionic axons, long post ganglionic axons

138
Q

preganglionic neurons in sympathetic

A

all release Ach

139
Q

postganglionic neurons in sympathetic

A

epinephrine and norepinephrine

140
Q

termination of norepinephrine and epinephrine

A

active transport, diffusion, enzymatic degradation (MAO)

141
Q

sympathetic division post-ganglionic neuron

A

sympathetic chain
collateral ganglia
adrenal medulla

142
Q

sympathetic chain

A

paravertebral ganglia directly adjacent to spine on both sides

143
Q

collateral ganglia

A

excretory and alimentary;

celiac
superior mesenteric
inferior mesenteric

144
Q

celiac collateral ganglia

A

stomach and duodenum

145
Q

superior mesenteric collateral ganglia

A

pancreas, liver, kidney, colon

146
Q

inferior mesenteric collateral ganglia

A

colon

147
Q

adrenal medulla post ganglionic neuron

A

endocrine gland; medulla has modified (not quite neuronal) sympathetic ganglion

chromaffin cells in medulla secrete norepi and epi

148
Q

parasympathetic autonomic nervous system division

A

rest and digest

preganglionic nuclei emerge from cranial nerves and sacral region of spinal cord

149
Q

CN III (parasympathetic division)

A

ciliary ganglion; intrinsic eye muscles

150
Q

CN VII (parasympathetic division)

A

pteryopalatine and submandibular ganglion (wtf); nasal, tear, salivary glands

151
Q

CN IX (parasympathetic division)

A

otic ganglion; parotid salivary

152
Q

CN X (parasympathetic division)

A

intramural ganglia; visceral organs of neck, thoracic, abdominal

broad effects
** vagus ** most important

153
Q

nuclei in S2-S4 pelvic nerves (parasympathetic division)

A

intramural ganglia; visceral organs in inferior portion of abdominopelvic cavity

154
Q

target organs of autonomic nervous system

A

cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, adipocyte, glands

155
Q

cholinergic receptor subtypes

A

nicotinic and muscarinic

156
Q

nicotinic cholinergic receptor

A

ionotropic
always excitatory
autonomic ganglia in both divisions

157
Q

nicotinic receptor agonist

A

Ach, Nicotine

158
Q

nicotinic receptor antagonist

A

TEA, currare

159
Q

muscarinic cholinergic receptor subtypes

A

metabotropic

target organs of parasympathetic

160
Q

agonist muscarinic

A

Ach, muscarine

161
Q

antagonist muscarinic

A

atropine

162
Q

adrenergic receptor subtypes

A 
alpha 1
alpha 2
beta 1
beta 2
beta 3
163
Q

Alpha 1

A

Gq coupled
smooth muscle constriction
vasoconstriction, increase in BP

164
Q

Alpha 2

A

Gi coupled

inhibitory release of NE and Ach

165
Q

Beta 1

A

Gs coupled

increase in contractility; tachycardia

166
Q

Beta 2

A

Gs coupled

relax, vasodilation

167
Q

Beta 3

A

Gs coupled,

enhance lipolysis

168
Q

horizontal plane sound localization

A 
loudness difference (above 3000Hz)
time difference (below 3000Hz)
169
Q

loudness difference horizontal sound localization

A

lateral superior olive encodes location through interaural intensity differences
excitation neuron perceives sound from one hemisphere which excites a neuron in LSO; at the same time, an axon from that hemisphere splits and sends axon to contralateral side and excites inhibition on the contralateral side; one side is all excitatory and perceived as closer to that ear

170
Q

time difference horizontal sound localization

A

medial superior olive computes sound by interaural time differences
series of neurons in MS are connected to neurons from cochlea

171
Q

vertical plane sound localization

A

the phase and change in sound wave; ears reflect and filter sound difference from top and bottom

172
Q

unilateral lesion of auditory cortex

A

little effect

173
Q

bilateral damage of auditory cortex

A

trouble distinguishing frequency and intensity, localization, speech understanding

174
Q

peripheral or cochlear damage

A

unilateral deafness

175
Q

damage to tympanic membrane or ossicles

A

results in impaired perception of all frequencies

176
Q

conductive deafness

A

trouble with sound transmission; modern hearing aid amplifies sound

177
Q

sensorineural (perception) deafness

A

too much excitation results in damaged hair cells which can be fixed with a cochlear implant

178
Q

organs innervated only by sympathetic nervous system

A 
adrenal medulla
arrector pili muscles
sweat glands
most blood vessels
nonshivering thermogenesis
179
Q

autonomic reflex centers

A

receptors from sensory neurons pick up stimulus

2 pathways: long and short

180
Q

long autonomic reflex

A

sensory neuron synapses to interneuron spinal cord; interneuron synapses to preganglionic neuron in spinal cord; then to postganglionic neuron; postganglionic neuron will synapse on target organ

181
Q

short autonomic reflex

A

sensory neuron synapses to interneuron; skips preganglionic neuron; then synapses with postganglionic neuron which synapses on target organ

182
Q

sympathetic reflex

A

cardioacceleratory

vasomotor reflex

183
Q

parasympathetic reflex

A

swallowing reflex
gastric and intestinal reflex
coughing reflex

184
Q

endocrine system

A

slow chemical messenger

185
Q

endocrine glands

A

have ducts; pancreas, thyroid pituitary, parathyroid, adrenal, gonads, placenta

186
Q

endocrine tissues

A

lungs, heart, liver, GI, adipose

187
Q

tissues that modify hormones

A

lungs, skin, liver, kidney

188
Q

peptide hormone synthesis

A

preprohormone to prohormone to hormone

189
Q

release of peptides and catecholamines

A

exocytosis

190
Q

release of steroids and thyroid hormones

A

simple diffusion

191
Q

transport of steroids and thyroid hormones

A

carrier proteins

192
Q

half life of peptide and catecholamines

A

short

193
Q

half life of steroids and thyroid hormones

A

long

194
Q

transport of peptides and catecholamines

A

dissolution in plasma

195
Q

response to binding peptide and catecholamines

A

second messenger system activation

196
Q

response to binding steroids and thyroid hormones

A

gene transcription and translation

197
Q

general response of peptide hormones and catecholamines

A

modification of existing proteins (new protein synthesis for peptides too)

198
Q

general response of steroid hormones and thyroid hormones

A

induction of new protein synthesis

199
Q

examples of peptide hormones

A

insulin, PTH

200
Q

examples of steroid hormones

A

sex steroids, corticosteroids

201
Q

examples of catecholamines

A

epinephrine, norepinephrine

202
Q

thyroid homonres

A

T3, T4

203
Q

tyrosine derivatives

A

catecholamines, thyroid hormones

204
Q

tryptophan derivative

A

melatonin

205
Q

why does the liver and kidney excrete peptide hormones and catecholamines?

A

they are quicker and easier to excrete since they are dissolved in the plasma

206
Q

first messenger

A

hormone

207
Q

second messenger

A

cAMP

208
Q

types of G proteins

A

alpha, beta, gamma

209
Q

types of Galpha proteins

A

stimulatory, inhibitory, q

210
Q

describe the sitmulatory cAMP pathway

A
  1. Hormone binds to Gprotein coupled receptor and undergoes conformational change
  2. G alpha s protein detaches from membrane and drops GDP which characterized it as inactive
  3. G alpha s protein attaches to GTP, becoming active
  4. adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cAMP
  5. cAMP is now the second messenger and can be phosphorylated by protein kinase A and can be amplified
211
Q

hormone secretion is controlled by…

A

circadian rhythms
ion concentration changes
plasma changes
NT activation

212
Q

complex control of hormone secretion

A

hypothalamus secretes releasing hormone –> pituitary gland secretes tropic hormone –> endocrine gland secretes effector hormone onto –> target cell/ organ

213
Q

hypothalamus

A

neural control of hormone release

Supraoptic region produces oxytocin and ADH

214
Q

oxytocin

A

uterine contraction, milk, romance

215
Q

ADH

A

urine, water conservation

216
Q

supraoptic region

A

Paraventricular nucleus

Supraoptic nucleus

217
Q

anterior pituitary gland

A

secretes tropic hormones, responds to hypothalamus and controls other glands

epithelial tissue

218
Q

posterior pituitary gland

A

stores ADH and oxytocin

nervous tissue

219
Q

endocrine gland (complex control pathway)

A

produces effector hormone

220
Q

hypophyseal portal system

A

carotid artery –> primary capillary plexus –> portal vein –> secondary capillary plexus –> jugular vein

221
Q

primary capillary plexus

A

in median eminence; delivers RH from hypothalamus to pituitary

222
Q

portal vein

A

connects pri capillary plexus to secondary capillary plexus

223
Q

secondary capillary plexus

A

delivers tropic hormones

224
Q

jugular vein

A

receives tropic hormones and distributes it

225
Q

short loop feedback control

A

tropic hormone controls hypothalamus and inhibits it

226
Q

long loop feedback control

A

effector hormone on hypothalamus and pituitary

227
Q

simple control

A

calcium levels are high: calcitonin is raised; calcium goes into bones; calcium level is now lower

Physiology & Neurobiology 2274 (7 decks)

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