Plato + Aristotle Flashcards
What is Metaphysics?
Metaphysics is a major branch of philosophy that concerns existence and the nature of things that exist. It is a theory of reality.
What is A priori knowledge?
A priori knowledge relates to what can be known through an understanding of how certain things work, rather than by observation.
What is Logical Reasoning?
Logical reasoning is the process of using a rational, systematic series of steps to arrive at a conclusion.
What is the Theory of the Forms?
Plato’s theory that everything on earth is an inferior copy of Ideal Forms in a permanent spiritual reality. These include forms of objects and abstract concepts.
What is the Form of the Good?
The Form of the Good is the ultimate object of knowledge in Plato’s philosophy; it represents the highest level of understanding and truth.
What is the Analogy of the Cave?
An analogy put forward by Plato to help people understand the theory of the forms, illustrating how most people live in ignorance of the true, ideal forms.
What is Empiricism?
Empiricism is the theory that all knowledge is based on experience derived from the senses.
What are the Four Causes in Aristotle’s philosophy?
Aristotle’s Four Causes are: material cause (what something is made of), formal cause (its structure), efficient cause (how it came to be), and final cause (its purpose).
What is Teleology?
Teleology is the study of nature by attempting to describe things in terms of their apparent purpose or goal (from the Greek ‘telos,’ meaning end or purpose).
What is the Unmoved Mover?
The Unmoved Mover is a concept from Aristotle, referring to a primary cause or ‘mover’ of all the motion in the universe, which itself is not moved by anything else.
What does Eternal mean?
Eternal means lasting or existing forever, without end.
What is Actuality?
Actuality refers to the state of existing in reality, as opposed to being potential.
What is Potentiality?
Potentiality is the ability to develop or come into existence, the capacity to be something in the future.
Who was Plato and what was his influence?
Plato was an Ancient Greek philosopher (427–347 BCE), a student of Socrates. He greatly influenced Western philosophy, with his writings on the soul, beauty, and governance.
What is Plato’s reliance on reason as opposed to the senses?
Plato believed that knowledge gained from the senses is unreliable and does not show reality. He argued that true knowledge is gained through reasoning (a priori knowledge).
What does a priori knowledge mean in Plato’s philosophy?
A priori knowledge refers to knowledge gained entirely from reasoning, independent of sensory experience.
What is Plato’s theory of the Forms?
Plato proposed that the physical world is a world of appearances, while the real world consists of perfect, timeless Forms. These Forms are the true, unchanging essence of things.
What are Forms in Plato’s philosophy?
Forms are the perfect, unchanging ideas of things, like the idea of a ‘cat,’ which exists in the world of Forms, distinct from the material world.
What is the distinction between the world of appearances and the world of Forms?
The world of appearances is the material, changing world we live in, while the world of Forms is the unchanging, perfect realm of ideal concepts that the physical world imitates.
How do we recognize the Forms according to Plato?
Plato believed we recognize the Forms because our souls, before being tied to the body, were connected to the world of Forms. Our recognition is a form of recollection.
Why did Plato argue for the existence of an immortal soul?
Plato argued that because we recognize universal concepts like beauty without being taught them, our souls must have previously experienced the world of Forms before birth.
What is the world of imitations in Plato’s philosophy?
The world of imitations is the material world, where physical things are copies or imitations of the perfect, eternal Forms that exist in a separate, higher reality.
How does Plato relate beauty to the theory of the Forms?
Plato suggested there is a Form of Beauty that all beautiful things share a likeness to. Beauty exists universally but is only imperfectly expressed in individual things.
What is the Form of the Good in Plato’s philosophy?
The Form of the Good is the highest of all Forms. It illuminates all other Forms and is the source of knowledge. It is like the sun in the analogy of the cave.
How does the Form of the Good relate to other Forms?
Plato argued that understanding the Form of the Good enables one to understand all other Forms, as they are all aspects of the Good. The Good is the highest knowledge.
What is Plato’s analogy of the sun?
In the analogy, the Form of the Good is like the sun: it makes other Forms knowable. Without the Form of the Good, one cannot see or understand the truth.
How does Plato compare sight and knowledge in his analogy?
Plato compares the necessity of light for sight to the necessity of the Form of the Good for clear knowledge. Without it, understanding is as difficult as seeing in darkness.
What is the hierarchy of the Forms in Plato’s philosophy?
The hierarchy starts with the Form of the Good at the top, followed by Higher Forms (e.g., justice, beauty), Lower Forms, Material Forms (what we see in the world), and Images (shadows or reflections).
What are Material Forms in Plato’s hierarchy?
Material Forms are the things we perceive in the physical world. These are imitations or copies of the higher and lower Forms, not the true reality.
What does Plato’s analogy of the cave represent?
The Cave represents the human condition where people are trapped in illusion and ignorance, only seeing shadows (appearances) and believing them to be reality.
What happens when a prisoner is freed in Plato’s analogy of the cave?
The freed prisoner initially struggles to understand the truth, but eventually sees the real world and the sun, symbolizing knowledge and truth beyond the material world.
What is the significance of the sun in Plato’s analogy of the cave?
The sun symbolizes the Form of the Good. It enables understanding of all other Forms and is the source of life and knowledge in the real world.
How does Plato’s analogy of the cave explain the philosopher’s role?
The freed prisoner represents the philosopher who seeks truth and knowledge, then returns to help others see beyond the illusions of the material world.
What does The Cave represent?
Represents the material world, a place of ignorance where people are trapped by their senses and unable to see the truth.
What do The Shadows represent?
The false reality the prisoners see; they represent the illusions or superficial truths we perceive in the physical world.
What do the The Prisoners represent?
People who are trapped in ignorance, only knowing the world of appearances and unable to perceive the true reality.
What does The Escape from the Cave Represent?
The journey of enlightenment; one prisoner is freed and begins to discover the true reality, symbolizing the philosopher’s search for truth.
What does The Sun represent?
Represents the Form of the Good; it is the source of truth and knowledge, illuminating everything and making things understandable.
What does The Outside World represent?
The world outside the cave represents the realm of truth and knowledge, beyond appearances and illusions.
What does the Return to the Cave represent?
The philosopher’s duty to return and educate those still trapped in ignorance, challenging their views, but often facing resistance and hostility.
What does Brian Davies argue about Plato’s analogy of the cave? (strength)
Brian Davies argues that the analogy of the cave helps to illustrate Plato’s theory of the Forms and has been a powerful tool throughout history to help people understand the relationship between the divine (God) and human existence.
What is Stephen Evans’ perspective on Plato’s theory?(strength)
Stephen Evans argues that Plato offers a rational argument for the existence of another reality, providing hope that the material world isn’t all that exists, and encouraging us to look toward the world of Forms as a more perfect existence.
Why is Plato’s theory appealing in terms of universal concepts?(strength)
Plato’s theory is appealing because it offers a logical and reasonable explanation for the existence of universal concepts like beauty, truth, and justice, which everyone has knowledge of, independent of experiencing these things physically.
How does Plato’s theory relate to mathematical concepts?(strength)
Plato argues that there are universal absolute truths that exist independently of empirical evidence, such as mathematical concepts like 2+2=4, which seem to be true universally, regardless of personal experience.
What does Bryan Magee say about Plato’s theory of the Forms?(strength)
Bryan Magee argues that Plato’s theory of the Forms, and his analogy of the cave, encourages people to seek enlightenment rather than being distracted by the material world. He states, ‘The theory that there is another world than this…gives value and meaning to our present world.’
How does Plato’s theory explain the existence of evil and suffering?(strength)
Some scholars argue that Plato’s theory provides an explanation for evil and suffering, stating that the material world is not perfect, and it is the actions of material beings that cause evil and suffering. Therefore, Plato’s ultimate reality is not responsible for these issues.
What is David Hume’s criticism of Plato’s ideas about the physical world? (Weakness)
David Hume would argue that Plato’s ideas about the physical world are counterintuitive because the physical world is backed by empirical evidence and seems so real. Hume would question the notion that the world around us is an illusion.
How does Richard Dawkins view the concept of a ‘transcendent’ world?(Weakness)
Richard Dawkins would argue that any talk of a ‘transcendent’ world, or a world beyond the physical, is meaningless, as it cannot be empirically tested or verified.
What is the problem of infinite regression in Plato’s theory?(Weakness)
The problem of infinite regression occurs when there is an ideal Form of Forms, like the Form of the Good, and one might argue that there could be an ideal Form of that ideal Form, leading to an infinite chain. Plato acknowledged this issue in his dialogues.
How do critics challenge Plato’s concept of absolute values like ‘Good’, ‘Beauty’, or ‘Justice’?(Weakness)
Critics argue that values like ‘Good’, ‘Beauty’, and ‘Justice’ are subjective and vary from person to person. If people have different opinions on these values, it challenges Plato’s idea of a single, absolute Form for each.
Why might Plato’s theory not be a logical conclusion of reasoning?(Weakness)
Critics argue that Plato’s theory may not be an obvious logical conclusion because it is not based on sensory evidence, which many people rely on to understand reality. Plato’s view of reason as the only way to know what is real is disputed.
Why do critics argue that Plato’s dismissal of the senses is problematic?(Weakness)
Critics argue that Plato’s dismissal of the senses as inferior is flawed because humans have relied on sensory perception for survival and understanding the world for thousands of years. Sensory information is vital in gaining a better understanding of reality.
What is the issue with Plato’s theory in relation to specific material objects?(Weakness)
Critics argue that Plato’s theory is unclear about how the world of Forms relates to specific material objects. For example, does the Form of a cat relate to any breed of cat, and should there be a Form for each breed? Additionally, not everything in existence seems to have an ideal form, like a slug or cancer.
What did Plato believe about our senses and how we should understand the world?
Plato believed that we could not rely on our senses to understand the world and that we needed to look beyond the material world to find true explanations.
What are the two distinct worlds in Plato’s theory of the Forms?
In Plato’s theory, there are two worlds: the perfect world of Forms, which consists of ideal, unchanging concepts, and the real world, which consists of material objects that are imperfect copies of the Forms.
How does Plato use the analogy of the cave to explain his theory of the Forms?
Plato uses the analogy of the cave to explain how people are often trapped in ignorance, only perceiving shadows of reality. The journey out of the cave represents gaining knowledge of the true Forms, moving beyond mere appearances.
What are some arguments suggesting Plato’s theory of the Forms is effective?
- Plato presents a logical and reasonable theory that there are universal concepts independent of experience. 2. It explains universal and absolute concepts like beauty, justice, and love, which are not invented but discovered within us. 3. Mathematics is viewed as a universal truth, something discovered rather than invented. 4. Plato’s analogy of the cave provides a clear and coherent way to understand his theory.
Why is Plato’s theory effective in explaining universal concepts like beauty, justice, and love?
Plato’s theory is effective because it shows that these concepts are not invented by humans, but are instead discovered within us as universal, absolute truths.
How does Plato’s view on mathematics support his theory of the Forms?
Plato views mathematics as a universal truth that was not invented by humans but discovered, supporting the idea that there are objective, unchanging realities (Forms) that exist beyond our sensory experiences.
What is the significance of Plato’s analogy of the cave in relation to his theory?
The analogy of the cave is significant because it provides a vivid and understandable way for people to grasp the difficult concepts of Plato’s theory of the Forms, such as the difference between appearances and reality.
What were the key differences between Plato’s and Aristotle’s approaches to philosophy?
Plato emphasized the world of ideas and reason as the source of knowledge, while Aristotle emphasized the physical world and experience as the basis of knowledge.
How did Aristotle’s approach to philosophy differ from Plato’s?
Aristotle focused on studying the physical world through empirical observation and rejected Plato’s theory of Forms, which he found unclear in terms of the relationship between Forms and the material world.
What is the ‘Material Cause’?
The Material Cause refers to the substance or matter something is made of, such as a table being made of wood or paper. It represents the physical components that can change over time.
What is the ‘Efficient Cause’?
The Efficient Cause is the cause of an object’s existence, which could be anything that brings about the object, such as a person making the object or an event like wind causing a tree to fall.
What is the ‘Formal Cause’?
The Formal Cause refers to the structure or form of an object, such as the specific arrangement of wood in a table that makes it recognizable as a table. It’s the essential characteristics that define the object.
What is the ‘Final Cause’?
The Final Cause is concerned with the purpose or function of an object or action. It asks the question, ‘What is it for?’ For example, the Final Cause of a chair is for sitting.
What are the Four Causes in Aristotle’s philosophy?
The Four Causes are: 1. Material Cause (What it is made of), 2. Efficient Cause (How it came to be), 3. Formal Cause (What its characteristics are), 4. Final Cause (What its purpose is).
What was Aristotle’s view on the theory of Forms?
Aristotle rejected Plato’s theory of Forms. He believed that the physical world is real and that objects in the world have their own inherent forms rather than being mere copies of ideal, abstract Forms.
What is Aristotle’s concept of ‘telos’?
Telos refers to the end goal or purpose that living things and natural objects are striving towards. It is the final cause or function that an object or living thing is driven to achieve.
How does Aristotle explain the final cause of natural objects?
The final cause for natural objects is less obvious than for non-living objects like bridges. However, Aristotle believed that objects in nature are driven towards achieving their proper form and their actions are directed towards this goal.
What is the Prime Mover (Unmoved Mover)?
The Prime Mover is a being that causes all motion and change in the universe without being moved itself. It is eternal and exists outside time and space, and is the ultimate cause of everything.
Why did Aristotle believe the Prime Mover must exist outside time and space?
Aristotle believed that the Prime Mover had to be eternal and without a bodily form to avoid infinite regression. If the Prime Mover had a form like us, it would be subject to change, which is impermanent and imperfect.
What is the relationship between the Prime Mover and God according to Aristotle?
In his work Metaphysics, Aristotle linked the Prime Mover with God, describing God as an eternal, perfect being. Aristotle’s God is outside the universe, unaffected by it, and is the source of all motion but does not intervene in the world.
How does Aristotle’s Prime Mover relate to the universe?
The Prime Mover relates to the universe as the ultimate goal or final cause (telos). It doesn’t initiate movement but serves as the end that all things move towards, similar to the attraction a cat feels towards milk.
Why is the Prime Mover’s role in the universe considered ‘redundant’ by Aristotle?
Aristotle’s Prime Mover is considered redundant because, although everything depends on it, the Prime Mover does not actively sustain or intervene in the universe. It merely attracts things but has no interest in the temporal world.
What is Aristotle’s view on the nature of the Prime Mover?
The Prime Mover is eternal, perfect, and unchanging. It knows only itself and cannot think about anything else, as thinking about the universe would cause imperfection due to the universe’s constant change.
How does Aristotle’s concept of the Prime Mover differ from Aquinas’ view?
Aquinas, unlike Aristotle, argued that the Prime Mover acts as an efficient cause, intervening in the world, whereas Aristotle’s Prime Mover is a final cause that attracts but does not intervene directly in the universe.
What is one of the key strengths of Aristotle’s theory of the Four Causes?
One strength is that it provides a clear, logical explanation for the movement and change in the physical world, linking everything to a Final Cause (purpose) and showing that nothing comes from nothing.
How does Aristotle’s belief in the Prime Mover support his theory?
The Prime Mover is the ultimate cause of all movement and change, and everything in the physical world is drawn toward it, seeking its telos (purpose). This creates a coherent reason for why everything is in a constant state of motion.
How does Aristotle’s theory of the Four Causes relate to empirical evidence?
The Four Causes can be observed in all things within the universe, which provides empirical evidence to support Aristotle’s belief that everything has a purpose and that change occurs according to certain principles.
What is the difference between Aristotle’s ‘a posteriori’ approach and Plato’s ‘a priori’ approach?
Aristotle uses the ‘a posteriori’ approach, which focuses on empirical evidence based on observation and experience, while Plato’s ‘a priori’ approach rejects sensory knowledge in favor of abstract reasoning.
How is Aristotle’s philosophy supported by the Christian community?
The Christian community has adopted Aristotle’s theory of the Four Causes and the Unmoved Mover to help explain the nature of God, aligning it with the idea of a transcendent, eternal being.
What are the Four Causes according to Aristotle?
The Four Causes are: 1) Material Cause - the substance something is made of, 2) Formal Cause - the shape or structure, 3) Efficient Cause - the agent or process that brings the object into being, and 4) Final Cause - the purpose or telos of the object.
What would Plato and Descartes argue about the senses?
Plato and Descartes would argue that the senses are unreliable and can deceive us. For example, in dreams, we often believe everything is real, but we are proven wrong when we wake up. They would favor a rationalist, ‘a priori’ approach to knowledge instead.
What is a criticism of Aristotle’s idea that everything has a final cause?
There is no clear evidence that everything has a final cause. Some philosophers, like Bertrand Russell and David Hume, argue that the universe simply exists without any intrinsic purpose.
What is a contradiction in the concept of the Unmoved Mover?
The Unmoved Mover creates a logical contradiction. It claims that everything must have a cause, yet it itself has no cause. This undermines its own reasoning.
What would Bertrand Russell and David Hume argue about the universe?
Bertrand Russell and David Hume would argue that the universe is just a brute fact — it simply exists with no purpose or underlying cause, contradicting Aristotle’s view of a purposeful universe.
How does modern physics challenge Aristotle’s view of the universe?
Modern physics, particularly the Big Bang theory, suggests that the universe had a definite beginning rather than being eternal. This contradicts Aristotle’s belief that matter and the universe are eternal and challenges his explanation of their origins.
How does Aristotle’s theory conflict with religious beliefs about creation?
Aristotle’s theory conflicts with religious beliefs, particularly the idea that the universe was created by God. His view of an eternal universe contradicts the religious notion of a divine creation with a definite starting point.
What is Aristotle’s approach to gaining knowledge?
Aristotle relies on knowledge gained by observation and experience of the world around us, which is an empirical approach. This contrasts with Plato’s reliance on reason and abstract concepts.
What are the four causes explained by Aristotle?
Aristotle explains four causes for the existence of something: 1) Material Cause (what it’s made of), 2) Efficient Cause (how it comes into being), 3) Formal Cause (the structure or form), and 4) Final Cause (its purpose or telos).
What is Aristotle’s use of teleology?
Aristotle argues that the most important cause is the Final Cause, or telos. Everything is moving towards its final purpose or goal, and this is the driving force behind all change and motion.
What is the nature of the Unmoved Mover according to Aristotle?
The Unmoved Mover is the cause of all movement and change in the universe, but it itself remains unmoved and unchanged. It is the ultimate source of all motion without being altered itself.
Why is Aristotle’s empirical approach seen as effective?
Aristotle’s empirical approach, based on real-world observation, is seen as stronger than Plato’s, as it engages directly with sense experience, making his theory more grounded in reality.
How might Aristotle’s Prime Mover be used to support theism?
The concept of the Prime Mover as the final cause of nature can be used to argue in favor of theism, suggesting that a divine being (God) could be responsible for the order and purpose in the universe.
What does Aristotle’s theory offer in terms of human life and purpose?
Aristotle’s theory provides a sense of meaning or purpose to human life, as we are constantly striving towards our telos (goal or final purpose).
What are some criticisms of Aristotle’s theory of the eternity of the world?
Aristotle’s view of the eternity of the universe is criticized both theologically (by those who believe in divine creation) and scientifically (as modern theories like the Big Bang suggest the universe had a definite beginning).
What is a criticism of Aristotle’s assertion that natural things possess a final cause?
Aristotle’s assertion that everything has a final cause is criticized, especially in light of evolutionary theory, which does not support the idea of inherent purpose or goal in the natural world.
What is the Form of the Good in Plato’s philosophy?
The Form of the Good is the ultimate and most important Form, often called “the Form of the Forms.” It illuminates all other Forms and gives them their value.
What is the relationship between the Form of the Good and other Forms like Justice, Wisdom, and Courage?
The Form of Good is the source of all other Forms. Justice, Wisdom, Courage, and other virtues are seen as aspects of goodness. These qualities are reflections of the Form of the Good in the physical world.
Have we ever seen the Form of the Good perfectly exemplified in the physical world?
No, we have never seen the Form of Good in its perfect form in the physical world. However, we recognize goodness in actions, role models, or events because they correspond to our intuitive knowledge of the Form of the Good.
How do we recognize goodness in the world, according to Plato?
We recognize goodness by comparing actions or people to our intuitive knowledge of the Form of Good. We can identify the aspects of goodness and also see where these actions or people fall short of perfection.
What does true knowledge consist of for Plato?
True knowledge, for Plato, is the knowledge of the Form of Good. A philosopher’s role is to seek wisdom and understanding of goodness, and to put that wisdom into practice.
Why does Plato believe countries should be ruled by philosopher-kings?
Plato believes philosopher-kings should rule because they love wisdom (philos) and possess knowledge of true goodness (sophia). They can lead by setting an example and teaching others about true goodness.
What is the Prime Mover (Unmoved Mover) in Aristotle’s philosophy?
The Prime Mover is the ultimate cause of movement in all things. It causes movement by attracting things towards itself, as the object of desire and love.
How does the Prime Mover cause movement in other things?
The Prime Mover causes movement by being the object of desire. Everything is drawn towards it because everything wants to imitate perfection.
What is the Prime Mover’s relationship to change?
The Prime Mover does not depend on anything else for its existence, meaning it is unchanging. It is pure actuality, with no potentiality or movement.
What characteristics does the Prime Mover have according to Aristotle?
The Prime Mover is eternal, perfectly good, immaterial, and beyond time and space. It is not capable of physical action, and its activity is purely spiritual and intellectual.
What is the nature of the Prime Mover’s activity?
The Prime Mover’s activity is thought, and it thinks only about itself, as thinking about anything else could cause change. Its thought is perfect and self-reflective.
What do both Plato and Aristotle believe about the ultimate reality that people seek?
Both Plato and Aristotle believe people desire to reach ultimate reality. Plato sees this as the Form of the Good, while Aristotle believes it is the desire to reach the Prime Mover, drawn toward perfection.
What is Plato’s approach to knowledge?
Plato was a rationalist, believing that knowledge comes from the mind and reason, not from sensory experience. Truth can be deduced or inferred through logical reasoning.
What is the difference between rationalism and empiricism?
Rationalism, like Plato’s approach, holds that knowledge comes from reason, while empiricism (e.g., Aristotle) holds that knowledge comes from sensory experience and evidence.
What is Plato’s view on the nature of knowledge?
Plato believed that knowledge is independent of sensory experience and is certain through reason. He believed that some conclusions are self-evident and absolute.
What are the two worlds in Plato’s philosophy?
Plato divides reality into two worlds: the real world (the world of the Forms, perfect and unchanging) and the material world (imperfect and a mere copy of the real world).
How does Plato describe true knowledge?
True knowledge, according to Plato, is a recollection of the true Forms from the world of the Forms. The soul connects us to this higher world of knowledge.
What is the role of the Form of the Good?
The Form of the Good is the ultimate Form, like the sun, providing the light necessary for understanding and perceiving the truth about all other Forms.
What is Aristotle’s approach to knowledge?
Aristotle was an empiricist, meaning he believed that knowledge comes from sensory experience and empirical (observable) evidence, rather than through reason alone.
What is the guiding model in Aristotle’s philosophy?
Aristotle’s guiding model is biology, as his philosophy emphasizes observation and the understanding of the world through empirical evidence.
What is the difference between Aristotle’s and Plato’s approach to knowledge?
Aristotle focuses on sensory experience and empirical evidence (a posteriori), while Plato believed knowledge is derived through reason and logic (a priori).
How does Aristotle explain the world?
Aristotle believes there is one world, made up of both form and matter. Everything in this world can be explained using the Four Causes: material, formal, efficient, and final causes.
What role do the senses play in Aristotle’s philosophy?
According to Aristotle, all knowledge comes from sense experience. The senses provide the evidence through which we gain understanding and insight into causes and purposes.
What is the Unmoved Mover in Aristotle’s philosophy?
The Unmoved Mover is the ultimate cause of all motion and change. It is a Final Cause that everything moves toward, driven by a desire to reach its purpose or telos.
How does Aristotle’s Unmoved Mover relate to the concept of God?
Aristotle’s Unmoved Mover is closer to the Christian concept of God than Plato’s Form of the Good, as it represents perfection, though it does not interact with the world.
