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NSB Lectures > Plasticity and Regeneration > Flashcards

Plasticity and Regeneration Flashcards

1
Q

Which embryonic layer gives rise to the nervous system?

A

Ectoderm

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2
Q

When does neurogenesis happen in an embryo?

A

between weeks 3-28.

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3
Q

Which steps are essential for neurogenesis embryonically?

A

Notochord thickening + neural plate formation
Neural crest formation
Neural tube closure

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4
Q

What type of cells are capable of self-renewal, can divide indefinitely + can differentiate into any cell type?

A

Stem cells

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5
Q

Can progenitor cells divide indefinitely?

A

No - they can only go through a limited number before their final differentiation.

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6
Q

What type of stem cells give rise at all the cell types in the nervous system?

A

Neural stem cells

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7
Q

Where are neural stem cells initially found?

A

In the neural tube

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8
Q

How do neural stem cells differentiate?

A

They divide asymmetrically - creating both a stem cell and a progenitor cell (different from mitosis which produces 2 identical daughter cells)

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9
Q

What are stem cells?

A

Cells that are capable of self-renewal, that can undergo an indefinite number of cell divisions AND can differentiate into any cell type.

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10
Q

What is the difference between stem and progenitor cells?

A

Stem cells can undergo any amount of divisions and become any type of cell.

Progenitor cells can only undergo a limited number of divisions are are on the “specialisation pathway” to become a certain type of final cell.

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11
Q

What is the name of the process that neural stem cells self-renew / divide?

A

Asymmetric cell division

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12
Q

What is the process by which neurons are formed?

A

Stem cell - progenitor cell differentiates - to specialised cell (neuron)

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13
Q

When do neural progenitor cells emerge?

A

After neural stem cell asymmetric self renewal

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14
Q

Where are migratory cells found?

A

In the neural crest.

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15
Q

Migratory cells can give rise to what different cell types?

A

Melanocytes
Craniofacial cartilage + bone
Smooth muscle
Peripheral and enteric neurons
Glia cells

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16
Q

Which receptor regulates the differentiation of progenitor cells towards neurons?

A

Notch receptor

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17
Q

Which pathway does the Notch receptor utilise?

A

Delta-Notch signalling pathway

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18
Q

Notch signalling pathway promotes the formation of which cell?

A

Astrocytes

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19
Q

Notch signalling pathway promotes the formation of what?

A

Astrocytes

Inhibits:

Oligodendrocytes & Neurons

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20
Q

In cortex development, which antagonist of the Notch pathway regulates the differentiation of progenitor cells to neurons?

A

NUMB protein

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21
Q

Growth ___ are the growing tips of ____.

A

Cones
Axons

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22
Q

What is found in the growth cones?

A

Microtubules, mitochondria & other organelles

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23
Q

Which molecule is important in the growth cone?

A

Myosin - moves the actin filaments

24
Q

What is the role of filopodia?

A

To receive environmental signals through receptor + responding by either advance, retract or turn.

25
Q

How many layers is the neocortex organised into?

A

6

26
Q

When are the 6 layers of the neocortex formed?

A

By birth

27
Q

What is the main difference between different layers of the cortex?

A

Degree of myelination of neurons (more on inside, less the further out on the cortex you go)

28
Q

What cells are the most abundant in the neocortex?

A

Pyramidal neurons

29
Q

What functions take place in the cerebral cortex?

A

Higher intellectual functions (inc motor and sensory)

30
Q

What embryological structure forms the ventricular system of the brain?

A

Neural tube

31
Q

What is important about the ventricular system in terms of neural crest cells?

A

They can be found here throughout adult life - as they are stem cells they have the ability to regenerate and differentiate into new nervous system cells - important area of research into treating neurodegenerative disorders,

32
Q

In cortical development, what do newly formed neurons migrate towards?

A

The cortical plate

33
Q

In what direction is the cortex developed?

A

From the inside out - newly formed neurons travel outwards to form the outer layers of the cortex first - they differentiate as they do - giving rise to the different levels of the cortex.

34
Q

Which cells assist newly formed neurons in migrating towards the cortical plate?

A

Radial glial cells

35
Q

What is the name for the movement of neurons to the outer cortical layers in development?

A

Radial glial migration

36
Q

What structures helps the neurons undergo radial glial migration?

A

Cytoskeleton microtubules

37
Q

What happens when there are problems with radial glial migration due to mutations?

A

Can cause disruption of the layers of the cortex - e.g. can have a reverse structure or reduction of the number of layers.

38
Q

Which cell signalling protein is responsible for cell migration? What happens if this has a mutation?

A

Reelin

Can get inverted layers of the cortex (outside on the inside).

39
Q

Which protein is responsible for the cytoskeleton component of migration? What happens if there is mutation to this protein?

A

Doublecortin

Can get some migration, but not enough, resulting in a reduced number of layers

40
Q

Adult neurogenesis takes place in which two areas of the brain?

A

Sub-ventricular zone - in the lateral ventricles
Hippocampus

41
Q

What is important about the ventricular system in terms of neural crest cells?

A

They can be found here throughout adult life - as they are stem cells they have the ability to regenerate and differentiate into new nervous system cells - important area of research into treating neurodegenerative disorders.

42
Q

Why does neurogenesis take place in the olfactory bulb?

A

Because is often a site of damage from viral infections = loss of smell. Is beneficial to have increased neurogenesis here to combat this problem,

43
Q

What is migration of neurons controlled by?

A

SIGNALS

Cellular environment (physical scaffolding = microtubules)

Molecular signals

Electrical signals

44
Q

What is chemoattraction?

A

Neurons being chemically attracted to move and adhere to a certain part of the brain

45
Q

What is chemorepulsion?

A

Neurons being chemically repulsed away from certain parts of the brain - causing them to grow/move in a different direction

46
Q

Name a protein that is a chemoattractant in the brain.

A

Netrin-1

47
Q

What is neuronal pruning?

A

The differentiation of neurons is controlled - however the number of stem cells is not = huge amount of neurons, some of which are not needed.

Therefore unutilised neurons will undergo apoptosis to avoid having excess numbers of neurons = pruning,

48
Q

Which signalling molecules regulate apoptosis of neurons?

A

Neurotrophins - inc:

Nerve Growth Factor (NGF)

Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF)

Fibroblast Growth Factor (FGF)

49
Q

What is the difference in terms of outcome after injury for neurons of the CNS and the PNS?

A

CNS neurons are more sensitive to damage than neurons in the PNS.

PNS has greater amounts of regeneration potential than neurons in the CNS.

50
Q

Why is there a difference between PNS and CNS neuronal recovery outcomes?

A

Because of the environment they both exist in.

PNS = lots of phagocytes to clear damaged bits of cells - inc amounts of regeneration.

CNS = macrophages are not as good at clearing up the damage. Also Glial cells inhibit axons from growing here.

51
Q

What is the term for the time in development where neuroplasticity is optimum for learning a certain skill?

A

Critical period

52
Q

What characterises critical periods?

A

Increased plasticity in an area of the brain

53
Q

Given an example of a critical period

A

Language learning skills / accent learning

Bird imprinting

Primate = social interactions & development

54
Q

Amputations of fingers showed changes in which cortical area to prove there is a degree of plasticity? How?

A

Somatosensory cortex (postcentral gyrus)

Were observed changes to cortical area that showed areas which previously aligned to the now amputated finger instead respond to stimulations from adjacent skin areas.

55
Q

What is the name for the somatotropin representation of different body areas on the cortex?

A

Homunculus.

56
Q

What evidence of neurogenesis exists in relation to memory?

A

Recording memories - relies on newly formed neuronal cells in the hippocampal dentate gyrus

57
Q

In which part of the hippocampus is neurogenesis linked?

A

Dentate gyrus

NSB Lectures (48 decks)

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